Slide 1
A Topical Approach to
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
8
Intelligence
John W. Santrock
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 2
Intelligence
• The Concept of Intelligence
• Controversies and Group Comparisons
• The Development of Intelligence
• The Extremes of Intelligence
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 3
The Concept of Intelligence
What Is Intelligence?
• Similar to thinking and memory skills
• Cannot be directly measured
• Ability to solve problems; adapt to and learn
from everyday experiences
• Individual differences are stable, consistent
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 4
The Concept of Intelligence
Intelligence Tests
• The Binet Tests
– Mental age (MA) — individual’s level of
mental development relative to others
– Intelligence quotient (IQ) — individual’s
mental age divided by chronological age,
multiplied by 100
• Normal distribution — symmetrical
distribution of scores around a mean
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 5
The Concept of Intelligence
The Normal Curve and
Stanford-Binet IQ Scores
Fig. 8.1
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 6
The Concept of Intelligence
The Wechsler Scales
• Overall IQ
• Verbal IQ
– Six verbal subscales
• Performance IQ
– Five performance subscales
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 7
The Concept of Intelligence
Group Tests
• Stanford-Binet and Wechsler tests are
individually administered
– Requires extensive information outside
testing situation
• More convenient and economical than
individual tests, but examiner cannot
– Establish rapport
– Determine level of anxiety
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 8
The Concept of Intelligence
The Use and Misuse of
Intelligence Tests
• Intelligence tests:
– substantially correlated with school performance
– moderately correlated with work performance;
correlation decreases as experience increases
• IQ tests can easily lead to false expectations
and generalizations about individuals
• Other factors also affect success
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 9
The Concept of Intelligence
Theories of Multiple Intelligences
• Controversy over breaking intelligence down
into multiple abilities
– Spearman’s two-factor theory: factor analysis
correlates test scores into clusters or factors
– Thurstone’s multiple-factor theory; seven abilities
– Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences; certain
cognitive abilities can survive brain damage
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 10
The Concept of Intelligence
Theories of Multiple Intelligences
Two-factor
theory
Spearman’s theory that individuals
have both general intelligence and
specific intelligences
Multiplefactor
theory
Intelligence is seven primary mental
abilities: verbal comprehension,
word fluency, number ability, spatial
visualization, associative memory,
reasoning, perceptual speed
Gardner’s
Theory
Eight types of intelligence: verbal,
math, spatial, interpersonal, bodilykinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal,
and naturalist skills
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 11
The Concept of Intelligence
Multiple Intelligences in
the Classroom
• Allow students to discover and explore
domains in which they have natural
curiosity and talent
• Attention given to understanding
oneself and others
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 12
The Concept of Intelligence
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
• Three main types of intelligence
– Analytic
– Creative
– Practical
• Assessing Sternberg Triarchic
Ability Theory (STAT)
– Effective in predicting college GPA
– More research needed
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 13
The Concept of Intelligence
Triarchic Theory in the Classroom
• Analytic ability favored in conventional
schools
• Creative students may be reprimanded or
marked down for nonconformist answers
• Practical students may do better outside
school
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 14
The Concept of Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence
• Perceive and express emotions
accurately and adaptively
• Four aspects
– Perceiving emotions
– Understanding emotions
– Facilitating thought
– Managing emotions
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 15
The Concept of Intelligence
Comparing the Intelligences
Fig. 8.3
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 16
The Concept of Intelligence
Do People Have One or Many
Intelligences?
• Many argue research base to support
theories not yet developed
• Some say Gardner’s classification
seems arbitrary
• Some experts who argue for general
intelligence believe individuals also
have specific intellectual abilities
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 17
The Concept of Intelligence
The Influence of Heredity and
Environment
• Genetic Influences
– Jensen argued heredity; studies of twins
– Adoption studies: educational levels of
biological parents better predictor of IQ
– Heritability: fraction of variance in IQ in a
population that is attributed to genetics
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 18
The Concept of Intelligence
The Influence of Heredity and
Environment
• Environmental Influences
– Modifications in environment can change
IQ scores considerably
• Parent communication
• Schooling
– Intelligence test scores increase each
year around the world
– Flynn effect
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 19
The Concept of Intelligence
Group Comparisons and Issues
• Cross-cultural comparisons problematic
– Different cultures define intelligence differently
– Practical and academic intelligence can
develop independently
• Cultural bias in testing
– Culture-fair tests: intelligence tests intended
not to be culturally biased
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 20
Ethnic Comparisons
• The Bell Curve
• African Americans students average lower
intelligence test scores than White students
– Individual scores vary considerably
• SES may have more effect than ethnicity;
gap narrows in college
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 21
Ethnic and Gender Comparisons
• Stereotype threat — fear of confirming
negative stereotypes raises anxiety in testing
– Some studies confirm existence
– Others believe stereotype threat is exaggerated
to explain gap
• Gender differences in intellectual abilities
– Males more likely to have extremely high or low
scores
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 22
The Development of Intelligence
Tests of Infant Intelligence
• Gesell
– Distinguishes normal from abnormal infants
– Four categories of behavior
• Motor
• Language
• Adaptive
• Personal-social
– Combined overall score is developmental
quotient (DQ)
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 23
The Development of Intelligence
Tests of Infant Intelligence
• Bayley Scales of Infant Development
– Three components
• Mental scale
• Motor scale
• Infant behavior profile
– Diagnoses developmental delays
– Overall scores do not correlate highly with
IQ scores obtained later in childhood
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 24
The Development of Intelligence
Tests of Infant Intelligence
• Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence
– Increasingly being used
– Focuses on infant’s ability to process
information
– Obtains similar results cross-culturally
– Correlated with measures of intelligence
in older children
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 25
The Development of Intelligence
Stability and Change in Intelligence
through Adolescence
• Group scores remain stable
– Strong relation between IQ scores obtained at
ages 6, 8, and 9 and IQ scores obtained at 10
– Correlation between IQ in preadolescent years
and 18 still statistically significant
• Individual scores vary more
– As much as 40 points in one study
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 26
The Development of Intelligence
Intelligence in Adulthood
• Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
– Crystallized intelligence
• Accumulated information and verbal skills,
which increase with age
– Fluid intelligence
• Ability to reason abstractly, which steadily
declines from middle adulthood on
– Cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cohort testing
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 27
The Development of Intelligence
Fluid and Crystallized Intellectual
Development Across the Life Span
Fig. 8.7
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 28
The Development of Intelligence
The Seattle Longitudinal Study
• Since 1956, studied
– Vocabulary
– Verbal memory
– Number computations
– Spatial orientation
– Inductive reasoning
– Perceptual speed
• Criticism: intellectual abilities more likely
to decline in cross-sectional rather than
longitudinal assessments
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 29
The Development of Intelligence
Longitudinal Changes in Six
Intellectual Abilities
Fig. 8.8
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 30
The Development of Intelligence
Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal
Comparisons of Intellectual Change
Fig. 8.9
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 31
The Development of Intelligence
Cognitive Mechanics
• Hardware of the mind
• Speed and accuracy of processes
involved in sensory input, attention,
memory, organizing, and discrimination
• Strong influence of biology and heredity
• Decline with age
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 32
The Development of Intelligence
Cognitive Pragmatics
• Culture-based software of the mind
• Skills include
–
–
–
–
–
Reading and writing
Language comprehension
Educational qualifications
Professional skills
Knowledge about self and life skills
• Can improve with aging
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 33
The Development of Intelligence
Wisdom
• Expert knowledge on practical aspects of
life permitting excellent judgment about
important matters
– High levels of wisdom are rare
– Emerges late adolescence and early adulthood
– Factors other than age are critical
– Personality-related factors better predictors of
wisdom
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 34
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Mental Retardation
• Condition of limited mental ability
– Low IQ on traditional test of intelligence
– Difficulty adapting to everyday life
– Onset of characteristics by age 18
• Some causes include
– Organic retardation
– Cultural-familial retardation
– Brain damage due to accident
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 35
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Classification of Mental Retardation
based on IQ
Fig. 8.11
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 36
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Giftedness
• Above-average intelligence; IQ averaged
150 on Stanford-Binet
– Precocity
– March to their own drummer
– Passion to master
• Intelligence and creativity not same thing;
most creative people are quite intelligent
but reverse not necessarily true
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 37
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Creative Thinking
Creativity
Ability to think in novel and unusual
ways and come up with unique
solutions to problems
Convergent
thinking
Gives one correct answer; is
characteristic of thinking tested
by standardized intelligence tests
Divergent
thinking
Produces many answers to the
same question and is characteristic
of creativity
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 38
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Steps in the Creative Process
•
•
•
•
•
Preparation
Incubation
Insight
Evaluation
Elaboration
• Not all creative people follow in linear
sequence
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 39
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Characteristics of Creative Thinkers
• Flexibility and playful thinking
• Inner motivation
• Willingness to risk
• Objective evaluation of work
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 40
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Changes in Adulthood
• Individuals’ most creative products
were generated in their thirties
• 80% of most important creative
contributions completed by age 50
• Researchers found creativity often
peaks in forties before declining
• Age of decline varies by domain
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 41
The Extremes of Intelligence and Creativity
Living a More Creative Life
• Try to be surprised by something every day
• Try to surprise at least one person every day
• Write down each day what surprised you and
how you surprised others
• When something sparks your interest, follow it
• Wake up in the morning with a specific goal
• Take charge of your schedule
• Spend time in stimulating settings
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Slide 42
8
The End
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.