Explicit Instruction:
An Overview
Dee Berlinghoff, Ph.D.
Mount Saint Mary College
dee.berlinghoff@msmc.edu
Sections Adapted from:
Dr. Charles Hughes
SPLED 412
The Pennsylvania State University
AND
A Regional Conversation about Specially Designed Instruction and Visioning the Continuum
Specially Designed Instruction: Professional Development for RSE-TASC Network
Continuum of Services for Students
with Disabilities (SWD)
The continuum has changed over time
 DCT is the first service delivered in
General Ed
 Used as a way to give students access to
the general curriculum
 As the continuum evolves practice to
evolve with it.

Review of Background Knowledge
Tell a partner what you think each of these
means:
 specially designed instruction
 explicit instruction
 corrective feedback

Be ready to share your answer on your
whiteboard
Specially Designed Instruction
NYS Regulation: Section 200.1(vv)
Adapting, as appropriate to the needs of an eligible
student, the content, methodology, or delivery of
instruction to address the unique needs that result
from the student’s disability; and to ensure access of the
student to the general curriculum, so that he or she can
meet the education standards that apply to all students.
What are the CRITICAL terms?
4
Let’s Review:
Specially Designed Instruction Operational Definitions
◦ Adapting: making changes matched to student need or condition
◦ Content: knowledge and skills that comprise curriculum to be mastered
◦ Methodology: actions by the teacher intended to produce or facilitate learning
which includes the art and science of instruction (ex: teaching strategies including
pacing, promoting active student engagement, positive classroom management –
best practice and explicitly taught although not necessarily specially designed
instruction)
◦ Delivery of instruction: teaching that results in access to, participation in, and
progress in the curriculum for students with disabilities (ex: explicit instruction of
learning strategies, task analysis, pre-teaching essential vocabulary, re-teaching
specific skills or concepts, etc.)
5
Let’s Remember:

Special education teachers are not content specialists:
◦ Special education teachers deliver instruction on skills and
strategies that allow students to access the general
curriculum and participation in the LRE.
◦ Remember: Special education is a service, not a place;
effective instruction must occur no matter where the
student receives his/her education.
6
Special Education Teachers Should Deliver:
Specially designed instruction can encompass different
combinations of a variety of provisions for students with
disabilities in order to meet their individual needs:
•
• Accommodations
• Modifications
• Specialized equipment
• Adaptive technology
Strategy Instruction – explicitly planned
and delivered
•
Instruction based on student need
•
Task Analysis
•
Scaffolding
•
Corrective Feedback
•
Development of metacognitive
strategies for independent learning
and performance
7
What does SDI look like?
For students with disabilities, SDI will
always be explicit instruction.
 What does effective explicit instruction
look like?

In some classrooms …
TEACHER RESPONSIBILITY
“You do it
alone”
Independent
STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY
(c) Frey & Fisher, 2008
In some classrooms …
TEACHER RESPONSIBILITY
“I do it”
Focus Lesson
“You do it
alone”
Independent
STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY
(c) Frey & Fisher, 2008
TEACHER RESPONSIBILITY
“I do it”
Focus Lesson
Guided Instruction
“We do it”
“You do it
alone”
Independent
STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY
A Structure for Instruction that Works
(c) Frey & Fisher, 2008
TEACHER RESPONSIBILITY
“I do it”
Focus Lesson
Guided Instruction
“We do it”
“You do it
together”
Collaborative
“You do it
alone”
Independent
STUDENT RESPONSIBILITY
A Structure for Instruction that Works
(c) Frey & Fisher, 2008
16 Elements of Explicit Instruction
(Archer & Hughes, Chapter 1)
1. Focus on critical content.
 Teach only what is critical, not everything
2. Sequence skills logically/hierarchically.
 Put easier skills before harder skills
 Do a task analysis
3. Break down complex skills and strategies.
 Smaller parts are easier to learn
 Once the smaller parts are learned, put them
together into a whole
4.
Design focused and organized lessons.
13
16 Elements of Explicit Instruction
5.
Begin lessons with clear goals and expectations.
◦ Tell students what they are going to learn and why.
6.
Review prior skills and knowledge before teaching new
content.
◦ Verify that students know what they need to know in order to learn what you
will be teaching.
7.
Provide step-by-step demonstrations.
◦ Model what you are teaching using think alouds.
14
16 Elements of Explicit Instruction
8.
Use clear and concise language.
• Use words that are in the students’ receptive vocabulary.
9.
Provide an adequate range of examples and non-examples.
• Show students when and when not to use a skill or how/how not a concept or
rule is used.
10.
Provide guided and supported practice.
• YOU need to guide initial practice so students are successful.
• As students demonstrate success, you can increase task difficulty.
•
11.Require frequent responses.
• Need a high level of teacher-student interactions through questioning.
15
16 Elements of Explicit Instruction
12.
Monitor student performance closely.
• Pay careful attention to student responses so you can verify mastery or make adjustments in
instruction.
13.
Provide immediate corrective feedback.
• Feedback needs to be delivered immediately after a response.
• Immediate feedback ensures higher rates of success.
14.
Deliver the lesson at a brisk pace.
• Slower pace = less learning.
15.
Help students organize knowledge.
• Provide structure for knowledge-this relates back to #4.
16.
Provide distributed practice (across time)
• Frequent practice = success
16
Why use Explicit Instruction

The research over the past 40+ years says
it’s the only method that consistently
works for students with disabilities.
Research Findings
•
•
•
•
•
Explicit instruction (ES = 1.68)
Mnemonic strategies (ES = 1.47)
Learning Strategies (ES = 1.11)
Study Aids (ES = 0.94)
Spatial or Graphic Organizers (ES = 0.93)
18
Response to Concerns about EI

Students need to discover for
themselves.
◦ Explicit guidance is needed for novice
learners; if students do not have adequate
background knowledge, they can’t
“discover.”
◦ Most recent research indicates that
students with disabilities can be taught
using guided inquiry.
19
Response to Concerns about EI

Explicit Instruction is teachercentered; students need to be in
control of the learning.
◦ Well-delivered explicit instruction involves
many interactions between teachers and
students; it is NOT lecture.
◦ Constructivism has no research base,
particularly for students with disabilities.
20
Remember:

Teaching method used should be based on
student need (for instructional support and
guidance) rather than on personal philosophies of
how students should learn.

EI provides guidance/support/scaffolds that allow
many students to learn skills and strategies that
they cannot learn from less guided instruction
(e.g., discovery, incidental).
21
Let’s Practice
Handout: Effective Methods for Teaching
Students with Disabilities
 With a partner:

◦ Read each scenario
◦ Decide if the teacher is using methods shown
by research to be effective for SWD
◦ Next to each box, write the numbers from
the 16 elements that are illustrated in that
scenario.
So What Does this Mean?

How does SDI fit into EI?
Explicit instruction
Definition: a research-based
method for delivering of how
instruction is delivered:
Specially Designed
Instruction - subset
of explicit instruction
•Sets a learning
objective
•Follows an
instructional
sequence
•Results in
independent student
mastery
Required Components for Specially Designed
Instruction: All SWD Must be Explicitly
Instructed in this way:
Set the stage: activate background knowledge
Discuss it: introduce the strategy and describe the steps
Model it: show how to do it
Support it: collaborative practice (large group)
Support it: guided practice (small group)
Support it: independent practice to promote
generalization with continual feedback
11
TELLING IS NOT THE SAME AS TEACHING AND
BEING TOLD IS NOT THE SAME AS BEING
TAUGHT
EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION
VIDEO – ANITA ARCHER – PRIMARY
HTTP://EXPLICITINSTRUCTION.ORG/?PAGE_ID=92
26
So, Where Do SDI and EI fit into the
Continuum of Services?

Let’s review the Part 200.6 regulations
and the continuum of services.
Commissioner’s Regulations: Part
200.6
(1) Students with disabilities shall be provided special education in the least
restrictive environment, as defined in section 200.1(cc) of this Part. To
enable students with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled students
to the maximum extent appropriate, specially designed instruction and
supplementary services may be provided in the regular class, including, as
appropriate, providing related services, resource room programs and
special class programs within the general education classroom.
The Challenge
•
•
•
Providing quality instruction with positive
outcomes in the LRE.
Teachers are accountable for student
performance.
Students need to meet expectations of the
Common Core.
Carousel Activity
Based on our discussions of SDI,
explicit instruction, and the
Continuum of Services:
What should a special education
teacher be doing across the
Continuum?
Carousel ~ Directions

Posters are around the room with ICT, CT,
RR and SC on them.
◦ You will:
 Count off by fours to identify the groups you will travel
in.
 1’s start at Integrated Co-Teaching
 2’s start at Consultant Teacher
 3’s start at Resource Room
 4’s start at Special Class
We will rotate clockwise when prompted by the phrase
“rotate”
Your task
At each station:
1.) As a classroom teacher, identify the
behaviors/activities you should be doing
with students with disabilities.
2.) If you have not seen these behaviors in
classrooms where you have observed,
identify what isn’t working/what are the
barriers to success?
The IEP: Centerpiece for Planning
MUST use the IEP as the basis for planning:
•
Identify student’s unique cognitive needs that
affect his/her learning-leads to identification of
learning targets
•
Identify pre-requisites (memory, generalization,
executive functioning)
•
Identify gaps in student skill levels (ex: selfregulation, processing, meta-cognition, rate of
learning, generalization of knowledge and skills
learned)
Identify Learning Targets
When planning SDI, no delivery can occur
unless learning targets are identified first.
 Instruction can’t begin unless a specific
target is set.
 The Common Core can be a guide and
that is how we identify gaps.

Types of Learning Targets
 We
have to know what we are going
to teach before we start teaching.
 It is important to specifically pinpoint
what is to be taught.
Types of Learning Targets
Adapted from:
Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (2002).
Effective Instruction for Special Education (3rd
Ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Target Type #1: Discrimination Learning

“Learning that one stimulus is different
from another stimulus or set of stimuli.”
(p. 32)

In the early stages of learning, it is
important to pay attention to
discrimination learning.

Discrimination plays a role in other types
of learning that follow.
Target Type #1: Discrimination Learning
Examples:
 fork vs. spoon
 p vs. q (as written letters)
 /k/ vs. /s/ (as sounds)
 bread vs. broad vs. breed (as written
words)
 mitosis vs. meiosis
 whether a 3 means 30 vs. 300 vs. 3000 in
a specific number
Target Type #1: Discrimination Learning
◦ Use concrete examples and nonexamples;
◦ Use a full range of examples and
nonexamples;
◦ Should focus on critical attribute(s)
◦ Go from gross distractors to fine distractors
 Example: Teaching target: Discriminating b
Match to sample:
b
5
4
b
c
b
b
t
h
b
b
d
b
d
p
b
0
f
h
b
2
e
b
p
q
Target Type #2: Factual Learning
Items of information to be remembered; may
be single
items, paired associates, or lists.

“Efficient factual learning is critical to school
success.”
(p.34)


Memorizing information is a critical first step
to learning, it is not the final step.
Target Type #2: Factual Learning
Examples:
 vocabulary words and their definitions
 famous people and what they’re known
for
 dates of historical events
 addition facts
 sight words
 days of the week
Target Type #2: Teaching Facts
Use examples only.
 Focus on knowing the fact by heart.
 Examples:

◦ 3 x 5 = 15. 3 x 5 is always 15; I know it by
heart. 3 x 5 = 15.
◦ the. t-h-e.the. Sometimes the T is capital and
sometimes the t is lower case, but t-h-e is
always spelled the.
◦ The capital of New York is Albany.
Target Type #3: Teaching Rules

“A rule describes the relationship
between a general principle or set of
conditions and specific outcomes or
behaviors.” (Archer & Hughes, p. 92).

Rules:
◦ Start with an observable verb OR
◦ If or When
Target Type #3:Teaching Rules
Archer & Hughes, p. 92:
 Science: When heat is added, solids, liquids,
and gases all expand.
 Social studies: If the quantity produced
increases, then usually the price is reduced.
 Math: If the last digit is even, then the
number is divisible by 2.
 Reading (decoding): When the letter c is
followed by e, I, or y, the letter c has the
sound (phoneme) /s/.
Target Type #3Teaching Rules
Archer & Hughes, p. 92:
 Writing (spelling): When a noun ends in ch,
s, sh, x, or z, and you want to make it plural,
add es.
 Writing (punctuation): If a sentence asks a
question, then the end punctuation is a
question mark.
 Writing (grammar): If the subject is singular,
then the verb must be singular. If the subject
is plural, then the verb must be plural.
Target Type #3:Teaching Rules

Use examples and nonexamples.
◦ When the rule applies
◦ When the rule does not apply.
◦ Should focus on critical attribute(s).
Target Type #3:Teaching Rules
Example:
When there are three or more words in a series, then
separate the words with a comma.
◦ Critical attributes:
 Words in a series
 Three or more
YES:
Cameron, Cece, and Carmello ran for the bus.
NO:
The bus was late because of the snow, and
sleet.
Target Type #4: Conceptual Learning

Abstract ideas of things or groups of things;
most concepts have specific examples of the
ideas they belong to.

“Conceptual learning has occurred when a
student can provide a correct response to a
novel instance of the concept.” (p. 36)

Concepts sometimes have to be taught using
features of discrimination learning.
Target Type #4: Conceptual Learning
Examples:
 triangle
 freedom
 red
 ocean
 addition
 place value (in math)
Target Type #4: Teaching Concepts
◦ Use concrete examples and nonexamples;
◦ Use a full range of examples and
nonexamples;
◦ Should focus on critical attribute(s)
Target Type #4: Teaching Concepts
Example:
Perpendicular lines: Two lines that intersect
to form a right angle.
◦ Critical features:
 Two lines
 Intersect
 Form a right angle
Target Type #4: Teaching Concepts
Perpendicular lines: Two lines that intersect to form a right
angle.
These lines are perpendicular.
There are 2 lines that intersect and form a right angle.
These lines are perpendicular.
There are 2 lines that intersect and form a right angle.
These lines are not perpendicular.
The lines do intersect but they do not
form a right angle.
These lines are not perpendicular.
The lines do not intersect.
Target Type #5:
Procedural Learning: Skills

Step-based procedures needed to
complete specific tasks that, once
mastered, require very limited or no
conscious thought; skills become
automatic and fluent.
Determine the steps in the procedure.
 Be sure the steps are in sequential order.
 These are steps that should be automatic
once the student learns the task.

Target Type #5:
Procedural Learning: Skills
Examples:
 adding multiple-digit numbers with and
without regrouping
 writing your name
 drawing a line of a specific length
 brushing your teeth
 making change for a $12.83 purchase
given $20.00
Target Type #5:
Procedural Skills
Opening a locker
1. Spin the dial at least three times to the right (clockwise), all
the way around.
◦
This "clears" the lock of any previous numbers.
2.Turn the dial to the right and stop at your first number.
3.Turn the dial to the left, going past zero and your first
number.
◦ Then go to your second number.
4.Turn the dial to the right and go directly to the last number.
5. Pull the lock open and out of the hole, or pull the latch or
handle, if there is one.
◦ Otherwise, tug on the knob to open the locker.
Retrieved 1/22/11: http://www.wikihow.com/Open-Your-Locker
Target Type #6: Procedural Learning:
Strategies

Step-based procedures needed to complete
specific tasks that, once mastered, still
require you to pay conscious attention and
to do a lot of thinking.

Determine the steps in the procedure.
Be sure the steps are in sequential order.

Target Type #6: Procedural Learning:
Strategies
Examples:
 understanding something one’s reading
 using mnemonics to remember something
 writing a paragraph
 doing a math word problem
 conducting an experiment
Target Type #6:
Learning Strategies
SCROL Notetaking Strategy
1. Survey the material to be read.
◦
Look at the section headings.
Connect the ideas.
2.
◦
Write keywords to show how sections are
connected.
Read the material.
3.
◦
◦
Read information under each heading.
Pay attention to words in bold or italics.
Target Type #6:
Learning Strategies
SCROL Notetaking Strategy
4. Outline the notes.
◦
Write down main ideas and supporting
details.

At least two details under each main idea.
Look back.
5.
◦
◦
Make sure your outline has all of the
information.
Add missing information.
Target Type #7: Problem Solving
and Thinking Skills

Finding a solution to a problem when no
specific strategy is known; using critical
thinking to derive novel ideas or concepts.
Refers more to constructing proofs in
geometry (Pythagorean theorem) than to
strategy-based mathematical problem
solving.
 Solving a “magic square” problem

◦ All sides add to 15 (next slide).
Target Type #7: Problem Solving
and Thinking Skills
Target Type #7: Problem Solving
and Thinking Skills

Can also be used for less formal tasks,
such as finding the simplest solution to:
375 + 375 + 375 + 375 + 375
5

Above from Mastropieri & Scruggs, p. 37.
Let’s Practice

learning to fix a breakfast of toast, cold
cereal, and orange juice

learning that red, blue, and yellow are
primary colors

learning what the word “osmosis” means
Let’s Practice

Handout
Identifying Prerequisites

Once we identify learning targets, we have
to be sure students have the prerequisite
skills to accomplish those targets.
Planning for Instruction: Verifying Prerequisites
From: Dr. Charles Hughes SPLED 412 notes
 Know
what they are!
New Skill
Prerequisite Skill
•Paraphrasing a main
Idea
•Identify a main idea
•2-digit + w/ regroup. •2-digit w/out regroup.
66
Verifying Prerequisites
•Verifying Prerequisites is NOT:
1. Reteaching (unless necessary)
2. Asking “do you remember how?”
3. Asking a few students to perform the skill
•Verifying Prerequisites IS:
Making sure ALL students can perform the
skill.
67
Using Types of Learning to Determine
Prerequisites and Decide What to Teach
Goal: The student will write comparecontrast essays.
Identify tool skills for compare contrast essays:
 Knowing definitions of compare & contrast
 Identifying the difference between different
types of essays
 Comparing and contrasting different
items/ideas
 Writing sentences, paragraphs, essays
 Completing a graphic organizer
Using Types of Learning to Decide What to
Teach
Goal: The student will write comparecontrast essays.
Identify student’s strengths and weaknesses,
then at what level to teach:

discrimination
◦ given a variety of essays (e.g., descriptive,
sequential, cause and effect, and compare and
contrast), picking out which are compare and
contrast essays
Using Types of Learning to Decide What to
Teach

fact
◦ remembering the following:
 “Compare means saying how things are the same.
Contrast means saying how things are different.”
 “You can compare and contrast any two things.”

rule
◦ writing essays that apply the following rules:
 “If you are to compare OR contrast, write 3 paragraphs
– one introductory, one detail, and one concluding.”
 If you are to compare AND contrast, write 4
paragraphs – one introductory, one for similarities, one
for differences, and one concluding.”
Using Types of Learning to Decide What to
Teach

concept
◦ comparing and contrasting more and more
seemingly unrelated pairs until they can
compare any two things assigned for this
purpose. An example of this type of
progression would be comparing




whales and dolphins
whales and elephants
whales and snakes
whales and tangerines
Using Types of Learning to Decide What to
Teach
 skill
◦ copying into a daily planner a homework
assignment to write a compare and contrast
essay on topic X for the following Tuesday

strategy
◦ completing a Venn diagram on an assigned
topic (e.g., the Sahara desert and the
Australian outback) and then writing a draft
of a compare and contrast essay
Let’s Practice

Calculating area of a circle
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
discrimination
fact
rule
concept
skill
strategy
What to look for in Observations:
Students with disabilities have
access to the curriculum:
 Students with disabilities are
working on content aligned with
the content of the work of their
grade level peers.
What to look for: Introduction of Lesson
Introduction of a Lesson
 Teacher explicitly references content of
previous lesson.
◦ Let’s review….”
 activating prior knowledge
 active involvement of students
 takes less than 5 minutes (2-3 ideal)
What to look for: Introduction of
Lesson
Introduction of Lesson
Video: Review of Multisyllabic Words-6th grade
 Pay attention to the rapid pace; all review is
previously known information.
 How long did it take: discuss with table partner?
 This is how review should generally be-quicktime needs to be spent teaching the new
material, not reviewing the old material.
Identifying Prerequisites

You are working in a classroom where the
teacher is teaching students to write
paragraphs, but the students aren’t learning
how to write paragraphs. You have been able to
get the teacher to recognize that the students
need to develop skills that come writing a
paragraph.

With your table partner, identify at least 3
prerequisites for writing a paragraph.
Introduction of Lesson
 The
objective of the lesson is written
on the board and referenced by
teacher.
 Teacher provides purpose for
content being taught, including “what
and why”.
 Teacher provides purpose for
strategies being taught, including
“what, why, how and when”.
Introduction of Lesson
 The
teacher checks that students
with disabilities understand objective
accurately.
 Students with disabilities
demonstrate understanding of
directions by accurately restating
directions and/or completing
directions as given by teacher.
What to Look for: Active Teaching
Active Teaching
 Teacher uses verbal explanation
and visual prompts to explain
content or strategy.
What to Look for: Active Teaching
Active Teaching
 If teaching a strategy/skill, teacher
models the strategy in sequential
steps.
 If teaching a
concept/rule/fact/discrimination,
teacher models using examples
and nonexamples.
Examples/Non Examples:
Concepts/Vocabulary
• Use concrete examples and nonexamples
◦ Use a full range
◦ Nonexamples focus on critical attributes
• Nonexamples: Keep noncritical attributes
consistent
Teaching GREEN
Examples
2” green square
NonExamples
2” blue square
4” green circle
4” purple circle
1” green triangle
1” red triangle
Designing Examples and Non-examples.
Step 1: Examine the definition and determine the critical
attributes or parts of the definition.

Glossary Entry
foreshadowing. Foreshadowing is the author’s use of clues to hint at
what might happen later in the story. Writers use foreshadowing to
build their readers’ expectations and to create suspense.

Critical Attributes
foreshadowing
◦ Author’s procedure
◦ Use of clues
◦ Hints at what might happen later in the story
84
Designing Examples and Non-examples.
Your Turn

Glossary/Dictionary Entry
Obtuse angle: An angle that measures greater than 90 degrees and less
than 180 degrees.

Critical Attributes
Perpendicular lines:
85
Designing Examples and Non-examples.
Step 2. Design examples in which all
attributes are present.

foreshadowing
◦ Author’s procedure
◦ Use of clues
◦ Hints at what might happen later in the story
Early in the story about Blue Cloud, the author indicated that Dakota babies
are taught not to cry. Later in the story, the baby who was lost in the grass
did not cry, making it impossible to locate the baby.
Teacher: This is an example of foreshadowing. The author gave
us hints about what might happen later in the story.
86
Designing Examples and Non-examples.
Your Turn
Step 2. Design examples in which all
attributes are present. Don’t forget
about wide-range!
obtuse angle
◦ angle
◦ greater than 90°
◦ less than 180°
87
Designing Examples and Non-examples.
Step 3. Design non-examples in which some, but not
all, critical attributes are missing.

foreshadowing
◦ Author’s procedure
◦ Use of clues
◦ Hints at what might happen later in the story
Early in the story about Blue Cloud, the author told about the
Dakota tribe moving to a new location.
Teacher: This is NOT an example of foreshadowing. The author is
telling what is happening, but is not giving hints about what will
happen later in the story.
88
Designing Examples and Non-examples.
Your Turn
Step 3. Design non-examples in which some, but not
all, critical attributes are missing. Again, wide-range!
obtuse angle:
◦ angle
◦ greater than 90°
◦ less than 180°
89
Your Turn: Generate Ex. & Nonex
 Equilateral Triangle
Ex:
Nonex:
Ex:
Nonex:
Ex:
Nonex:
Examples and NonExamples for Rules
(Hughes, C.A., SPLED 412)
First, a word about which rules to teach:
They should be:
Important: To content currently being learned
and used in the future.
Useful: Does the rule actually work???
(Not too many exceptions – “when 2 vowels
go walking”)
Difficult: For students to remember/understand.
91
Examples and NonExamples:
Rules
• Examples and nonexamples are
used to teach
when the rule
applies and when it does not.
• Thus, focus of rule lesson is
twofold:
- How to use the rule
(procedural)
- When to use the rule
(conditional)
92
Rules: Examples and Nonexamples
Make sure rule is worded accurately.
NO: Separate items in a series with commas.
YES: When there are 3 or more items in a series,
separate them with commas.
NO: When a word ends in y and you want to make it
plural, change the y to i and add es.
YES: When a word ends in consonant-y and you want
to make it plural, change the y to i and add es.
93
Rules: Examples and Nonexamples
Determine the Critical Attribute(s) of the Rule.
Critical Attribute = The condition(s)
under which the outcome or behavior
occurs. That is, WHEN the rule
should be used.
Suggestion: Identify the ‘behavior’ first,
and then ask yourself “under what
conditions does the behavior occur?”
94
Rules: Examples and Nonexamples
Determine Critical Attributes

Model:
When a noun ends in ch, s, sh, x, or z, and you want to
make it plural, add es.
◦
churches, waltzes, boxes, wishes
◦
sandwichs, witch’s,

Prompt:
When a word ends in vowel-consonant + e and you
want to add an ending that begins with a vowel, drop
the e.
bake + ing = baking
spite + ful = spiteful
shine + ing = shining
shoe + ing = shoeing
time + ed = timed
95
Rules: Examples and Nonexamples Determine Critical Attributes
• Check:
When there are 3 or more items in a series,
separate them with a comma.
96
What to Look For: Active Teaching
 Teacher’s
instruction ensures
multiple opportunities for
participation by students with
disabilities, e.g., choral responding,
thumbs-up, white board response.
(see next two slides)
 Teacher presents the content in
chunks/segments.
Multiple Opportunities to Respond:
Oral Responses:
Choral Responses
need some kind of signal
examples: p. 137
Partner Responses
need guidelines
you select partners
assign #s (1, 2)
use sentence starters
start your sentence with….
Pause Procedure
teach/lecture for12-18 minutes, then pause two minutes
for partners to compare notes.
Multiple Opportunities to Respond
Written Responses
Response cards & response slates
Action Responses
Touching/Pointing
works well for primary
students
Acting out/Responding with
gestures
require frequent responses
Alternative Reading Procedures
Echo Reading
Choral Reading
Cloze Reading
Whisper Read
Partner Read
What to Look for: Active Teaching
Example: Teacher explicitly
teaches required vocabulary.
We will refer to the attached
handout.
Example, then Practice
Extend students’ understanding:
Introduce or have students generate synonyms for the new words (with the use of
reference materials).

Allow students to work in partners.

Vocabulary Instruction 2nd grade
With your table partner:
Ones: Teach the word disgusting
Twos: Teach the word relieved
Analysis of An Active Participation Lesson

Handout: Compound Word Meanings
◦ With your partner
 Ones: describe one way the teacher could have
engaged students during the “Input” phase of the
lesson.
 Twos: Tell your partner one way you will know you
see this during a visit.
Active Teaching: We Do
Active Teaching (This is moving in to
We Do-at this point just repeating is
necessary)
 Students with disabilities engage in
structured activities designed to allow to
processing; e.g., I-time, think-pair-share,
numbered heads, elbow partners, think-jot.
 Students with disabilities correctly answer
questions regarding content/strategy.
Active Teaching: We Do
Active Teaching (This is moving in to We
Do-at this point just repeating is necessary)
 Students with disabilities are responding to highorder questions; e.g., problem-solving,
generalization, evaluative, inferential, application.
 The teacher uses wait time to enable student
with disabilities to process responses to
questions/directions.
 Teacher re-teaches if students’ responses are
inaccurate. (we are going to discuss this more in
a minute)
Guided Practice
Also called We Do (it’s where the learning occurs
in a lesson)
 This is where the teacher should be spending the
bulk of instructional time
 Teacher leads student with disabilities through step-bystep practice.
 Teacher initially uses high level of prompting/cues with
students with disabilities. (e.g.,Tell, Guide)
 Teacher gradually decreases level of prompting/cuing to
student with disabilities based on accurate responding.
(Ask, Remind, Check)
Corrective Feedback Sequence
A-B---> C
CF
4 Essential delivery skills
Require frequent responses.
 Monitor student performance
carefully.
 Provide immediate affirmative and
corrective feedback.
 Deliver the lesson at a brisk pace.

require frequent responses
YES:
InputQuestionResponse.
InputQuestion Response.
InputQuestionResponse. Input
QuestionResponse.

NO:
InputInputInputInputInputInput

InputInputInputInputInputInput

require frequent responses
Oral Responses:
Choral Responses
need some kind of signal
examples: p. 137
Partner Responses
need guidelines
you select partners
assign #s (1, 2)
use sentence starters
start your sentence with….
Pause Procedure
lecture 12-18 minutes, then pause two minutes
partners to compare notes.
for
require frequent responses
Written Responses
Response cards & response slates
Action Responses
Touching/Pointing
works well for primary
students
Acting out/Responding with
gestures
require frequent responses
Alternative Reading Procedures
Echo Reading
Choral Reading
Cloze Reading
Whisper Read
Partner Read
Video examples
teaching students to participate;
model of participation
monitor student performance carefully

Must ask yourself:
◦ Is the response correct or incorrect?
◦ If the response is incorrect, what type of
correction procedure should be used?
Provide Immediate and Corrective Feedback
STUDENTS SHOULD ALWAYS PRACTICE CORRECT RESPONSE.
1. Model the correct
answer.(I do it.)
2. Check understanding.
(You do it.)
3. Check again.
(Student says /cot/ when
you requested /cat/.)
“This sound is /a/.”
Incorrect
response
when strategy
or rule used.
1. Guide student(s) to the
correct answer by asking
questions on the steps of
the strategy or rule. (We
do it.)
2. Check understanding.
(You do it.)
3. Check again.
(Student spells siting for
sitting.)
“The word is /cat/”
“What word?” /cat/
“Yes,/cat/”
Hint:“This ends with a
______
CF:
Repeat Hint..” and so we
double the final
consonant. sitting.”
“Show me.”
114
Incorrect
response
when “fact”
requested.
Corrective Feedback “Rules”

Provide Corrections:
◦ Your job is to provide feedback for
“errorless” learning;
◦ All new learning will result in errors;
◦ Corrections do not result in lowered
self-esteem.

Provide Immediate Corrections:
◦ Do not allow for repetition of error
patterns
Corrective Feedback “Rules”

Focus on the Correct Answer Rather
than the Incorrect Answer
◦ You want your students to remember the correct
answer, not the incorrect answer.
◦ For example, if a student spells baking “bakeing,” you
would not say, “You left the e in the word before
adding –ing. That’s not how we do it.” You should say,
“Remember, we drop the e before adding –ing. It’s ba-k-i-n-g. Show me. Yes, b-a-k-i-n-g. You dropped the
e before adding –ing.”
Corrective Feedback “Rules”

Utilize Appropriate Tone when
Correcting Errors

End Every Correction by Having
Students Give the Correct Response
◦ Students need the repetition, so you need to
make them say/do the correct response.
◦ Also need to return to that student later
with a similar item so the student has a
chance to respond again.
monitor student performance carefully

Must ask yourself:
◦ If the response is correct, what type of
affirmation/praise would be appropriate?
Provide Immediate and Corrective Feedback
Acknowledge
and move on.
“Correct”
“Yes, that’s right.”
[Then specifically
name correct fact/
concept.]
“You knew 3 x 5 =
15.
Correct but
hesitant
response
Acknowledge
and add brief
‘firm-up
explanation’.
“Correct. Since this
is a telling sentence,
we would end the
sentence with a
period.”
119
Correct and
quick
response
Provide immediate and corrective feedback

Practice:

Page 176

Directions: There are two examples
in each box (2,3,4). One person is
the teacher for the first example in
each box, the other person is the
teacher for the second example in
each box.
provide immediate and corrective feedback

What adaptations, if any, should be
made in the current lesson?
◦ should the lesson go forward?
◦ should confusing facts, concepts, skills,
or strategies be retaught immediately?
◦ should additional practice be provided
within the lesson?
Prompted Practice

Two phases:
◦ We do
◦ Guided practice

Purposes of prompted/guided
practice
◦ Promote high level of success
◦ Build confidence

Variety of Prompts
◦ Verbal
◦ Visual
◦ Physical
12
2
Prompted Practice

Some additional considerations:
◦ Keep wording consistent with the model.
◦ Use direct verbal prompts/statements.
 Use regrouping in this problem.
 Use a question mark at the end of an asking
sentence.
◦ Sometimes you may ask questions to prompt:
 Why did you change signs before solving the
problem?
12
3
Prompted Practice

Some additional considerations:

In general…
◦ Don’t “go fishing” (i.e., keep asking for an answer)
◦ Be businesslike and non-threatening
 Positive
 Neutral
 Negative
12
4
Prompted Practice

A Brief Demonstration: Two digit
subtraction problems requiring
regrouping
26
-17
42
-13
60
85
-49
- 37
12
5
Unprompted Practice(You do it)

Practice with no prompts (that’s the
goal)

Close Monitoring

“Do one then stop”
◦ Need success with one before being
given more to do.
◦ You will have to prompt immediately if
an error is made.
12
6
INDIVIDUAL ORAL
RESPONSES

When?
◦ To verify individual understanding
◦ Following group responses
◦ If the desired response is lengthy or
there are different correct wordings
PROCEDURE FOR ASKING A
QUESTION OF AN INDIVIDUAL
STUDENT
Ask a question.
2.
Give thinking time.
3.
Call on a student to share his/her
answer.
4.
Guide student(s) in discussing the
answer.
5.
Option: Have students share the
128
1.
ELICITING INDIVIDUAL RESPONSES

Less desirable practices
Guidelines:
 Call on volunteers when the answer is a product of
personal experience.
 Don’t call on volunteers when the answer is a
product of instruction or reading. Instead expect
that all students could answer your question.
#2. Calling on inattentive students.
129
#1. Calling on volunteers.
INDIVIDUAL ORAL
RESPONSES, CONT.
Volunteers
or Non-volunteers?
 Advantages to non-volunteers
Volunteers typically a small subset of the class
Teacher likely to get distorted view of student
mastery
 Situations in which volunteers are appropriate
Answer based on personal experience
Not all would be expected to have the answer
Bottom Line: Non-volunteers are preferred as often as
possible.
TURNS FOR NON-VOLUNTEER
INDIVIDUAL RESPONSES

Random or ordered?

Ordered turns
◦
◦
◦
◦

All students respond
Reduces student anxiety
Saves time
BUT may reduce overall student alertness and
teacher attentiveness to other students
Best practice: vary amount of
responding
TURNS FOR NON-VOLUNTEER
INDIVIDUAL RESPONSES

Random turns
◦ Advantages
 All students alert
 BEST PRACTICE
 Ask question
 Raise hand, look around, give think time
 Call on student
◦ Disadvantages
 May not call on all students
 BEST PRACTICE: Have a plan
MONITOR RESPONSES AND
ADJUST INSTRUCTION
WHY?

Close monitoring allows teacher to
adjust instruction

Close monitoring allows teacher to
provide corrective feedback
Especially important given relatively
MONITOR STUDENTS’ RESPONSES
Walk around.

Look around.

Talk around.
134

3 TYPES OF ERRORS

Error Type
◦ Careless/Inattentive
◦ Lack of factual
knowledge
◦ Lack of procedural
knowledge

Correction
Procedure
◦ Repeat question,
student repeats
correct response
◦ Say answer, student
makes correct
response
◦ Prompt through step,
student makes
correct response
FRIENDLY CORRECTIONS:
MAKING THE CLASSROOM SAFE

Group corrections

Praise correct response

Neutral, non-threatening manner

“Errors are a part of learning.”

Admit your own errors

Establish peer response
PRAISING/ACKNOWLEDGING
CORRECT RESPONSES
Praise is usually effective if:




Contingent (IF – THEN)
Specific when possible
Varied
Provided for noteworthy performance
Focused on achievement and effort rather than
personality attributes
Comparing students to themselves rather than to
other
Positive, credible, genuine
Does not disrupt ‘flow’
You know your students
137





MAINTAIN ATTENTION

Why?
◦ Attention challenges

A teacher makes a big difference

Best practices
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Elicit more responses
Move closer (proximity control)
Increase pace
Eye contact
Model alertness
ENSURE ALL STUDENTS AN
EQUAL CHANCE TO LEARN

Typical practices to avoid
◦ Call on higher achieving students
 Result  Lower achieving students make
fewer responses
◦ More eye contact for higher students
 Result  Lower students less attentive
◦ More think time for higher students
 Result  Maintain perception of higher and
lower performing
EQUAL CHANCE BEST
PRACTICES

ALL students should have an equal
number of opportunities to respond

ALL students should receive eye contact
and smiles

ALL students should get sufficient think
time
CRITICAL
PRESENTATION/DELIVERY
SKILLS--SUMMARY

Elicit frequent responses

Monitor student responses and adjust
instruction

Maintain an appropriate pace

Maintain student attention

Ensure all students an equal chance to
learn
Verbal Retell
1.) Verbal Retell Video-1st grade
2.) Summary Paragraph Frame Video-1st grade
During the video, pay attention to the
following:
1.) What cues does Anita give when she
Tells?
2.) What cues does Anita give when she
Asks?
3.) What cues does Anita give when she
Reminds?
Guided Practice
◦ Concepts/Vocabulary/Rules: Guide them->Check
understanding
Concepts/Vocabulary: Guide Them
 asks students to state the definition.
 presents sentences in which students have to fill in the
blank OR asks relevant yes/no questions
Rules: Guide Them
 asks students to state the rule.
 prompts with, “Should we …?” AND “Does_____ make
sense?”
Guided Practice
◦ Concepts/Vocabulary/Rules: Guide them->Check
understanding
Concepts/Vocabulary/Rules: Check Understanding
 uses a system for all students to name definitions/rule.
 uses a system for all students to give and get feedback
on their responses.

Generally will use partner responses in this phase.
Let’s Practice

Handout: Compound Words

With your partner:
◦ Ones: Review the teacher’s use of questioning during We Do.
Is it effective?
◦ Twos: Tell your partner one way the teacher could have
elicited responses during the questioning/response phase.
◦ Ones: Tell your partner one way secondary teachers can
facilitate responding in the classroom and describe what it
looks like.
◦ Twos: Tell your partner one way elementary teachers can
facilitate responding in the classroom and describe what it
looks like.
Guided Practice-Corrective
Feedback
 Teacher
gives immediate feedback with
error correction to students with
disabilities. [aka corrective feedback]
 Teacher
re-teaches if students’
responses are inaccurate. [“reteaching”
should occur through the natural course
of CF]
Guided Practice-Corrective
Feedback
 Students
with disabilities work in groups
of varying sizes; e.g., individual, pairs,
small group, whole group.
 Students
with disabilities are monitoring
and self-correcting work. [how to do
this MUST be explicitly taught]
Error Correction: Recognizing
the 3 TYPES OF ERRORS

Error Type
◦ Careless/Inattentive

Correction
Procedure
◦ Repeat question,
student repeats
correct response
◦ Lack of factual
knowledge
◦ Say answer, student
makes correct
response
◦ Lack of procedural
knowledge
◦ Prompt through step,
student makes
correct response
During Corrective Feedback:
◦ Teacher must circulate.
◦ While the ultimate goal is for students to
respond without prompts, students who still
need assistance get prompting from the
teacher.
 You should NOT hear:
 How many times have we done this?
 Why can’t you remember this?
 You should know this by now.
 Just think about it.
Let’s Practice
Spelling & Dictation Video
 While you are watching:
◦ Look for following procedures that were used to set
students up for success on the sentence dictation.

Dictation of sentences
◦ The teacher said the entire sentence and had students
repeat the sentence.
◦ The teacher then dictated the first part of the sentence
and gave students time to write the first part.
◦ As the students wrote, the teacher moved around the
classroom and monitored student work.
Let’s Practice
Feedback
◦ The teacher gave feedback on each word.
◦ Students were awarded points for correct spelling,
capitalization, and punctuation. The points were
designed to make the students more interested in the
task and more careful.
Notice other important instructional procedures.
 Monitoring - The teacher constantly moved around the
room monitoring students’ work.
Practice

Handout: Compound Words

With your partner:
◦ Ones: Review the teacher’s corrective feedback during
We Do. Was it effective?
◦ Twos: Tell your partner one way the teacher could
have given effective corrective feedback during this
lesson.
◦ Ones: Tell your partner what corrective feedback
looks like in an elementary classroom.
◦ Twos: Tell your partner what corrective feedback
looks like in a secondary classroom.
Independent Practice (You Do)
◦ Work relates to objective on board.
◦ Students with disabilities are able to accurately
complete tasks without prompts.
◦ Teacher moves through classroom and checks
in with every student with disabilities.
◦ Teacher gives timely feedback to students with
disabilities.
◦ Teacher gives specific feedback to students with
disabilities.
Independent Practice (You Do)
◦ Teacher elicits alternatives from students with
disabilities when responses are incorrect.(this
only comes after modeling of how to think).
◦ When students with disabilities’ responses are
inaccurate, staff re-teaches the
concept/strategy individually or in small groups.
◦ Students with disabilities are monitoring and
self-correcting work. [must be explicitly
taught.]
◦ Students with disabilities complete work. [must
be reinforced]
Independent Practice (You Do)
◦ The same principles of corrective feedback still apply.
◦ Teacher must circulate.
◦ While the ultimate goal is for students to respond
without prompts, students who still need assistance
get prompting from the teacher.
 You should NOT hear:
 How many times have we done this?
 Why can’t you remember this?
 You should know this by now.
 Just think about it.
Independent Practice (You Do)
Specific comments about:
 Teacher elicits alternatives from students
with disabilities when responses are
incorrect.(this only comes after modeling
of how to think).
◦ Students need corrective feedback so
they only hear the correct answers.
◦ Fishing for responses leads to incorrect
understandings
Independent Practice (You Do)

When students with disabilities’ responses
are inaccurate, staff re-teaches the
concept/strategy individually or in small
groups.
◦ “re-teaching” means continued
prompting with corrective feedback.
◦ If that doesn’t work, teacher needs to go
back and do some more We Do
practices with student(s).
Closure

The objective of the work is restated by teacher
either verbally or visually.

Teacher conducts a short formative assessment
of students’ with disabilities level of
understanding; e.g. exit cards, collects
independent work, self-check or peer check of
work.

Teacher explicitly connects prior and upcoming
lessons.