CONSCIOUSNESS
Forms of Consciousness
AP Photo/ Ricardo Mazalan
Stuart Franklin/ Magnum Photos
Christine Brune
Bill Ling/ Digital Vision/ Getty Images
Consciousness, modern psychologists believe, is
an awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Selective Attention
Our conscious awareness processes only a
small part of all that we experience. We
intuitively make use of the information we
are not consciously aware of.
Inattentional Blindness
Daniel Simons, University of Illinois
Inattentional blindness refers to the inability
to see an object or a person in our midst.
Simons & Chabris (1999) showed that half of
the observers failed to see the gorilla-suited
assistant in a ball passing game.
Change Blindness
Change blindness is a form of inattentional
blindness in which two-thirds of individuals
giving directions failed to notice a change in the
individual asking for directions.
© 1998 Psychonomic Society Inc. Image provided courtesy of Daniel J. Simmons.
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
SLEEP and DREAMS
Macbeth
“Sleep that knits up the
William
Shakespeare
1564 - 1616
ravelled sleave of care
The death of each day's
life, sore labour's bath
Balm of hurt minds,
great nature's second
course,
Chief nourisher in life's
feast.”
“If it is sleep that knits up the raveled sleeve of
care, then an overwhelming number of
Americans are walking around with distinctly
tatty shirt cuffs.”
Natalie Angiers, 1990
Biological Rhythms and Sleep
Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and include
sleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it
can be altered by artificial light.
Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus located in the
hypothalamus to decrease (morning) melatonin from the
pineal gland and increase (evening) it at nightfall.
Sleep Stages
Measuring sleep: About every 90 minutes, we
pass through a cycle of five distinct sleep
stages.
Hank Morgan/ Rainbow
Awake but Relaxed
When an individual closes his eyes but remains
awake, his brain activity slows down to slower,
regular alpha waves (8-12 cps). A meditating
person exhibits an alpha brain activity.
Sleep Stages 1-2
During early, light sleep (stages 1) the brain
enters a slower, regular wave form called theta
waves (4-7 cps). A person who is daydreaming
shows theta activity.
Theta Waves
Sleep Stages 1-2
During the second phase of light sleep (stage 2)
the brainwave pattern shows theta waves and
characteristic sleep spindles and the K complex.
Theta Waves
Sleep Stages 3-4
During deepest sleep (stages 3-4), brain activity
slows down. There are large-amplitude, slow
delta waves (1- 2 cps).
Sleep Stages 3-4
In stage 3, 20%-50% of the waves are delta; in
stage 4, more than 50% are delta waves.
Stage 5: REM Sleep
After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the
sleep cycle starts moving backward towards
stage 1. Although still asleep, the brain engages
in low- amplitude, fast and regular beta waves
(13-40 cps) much like the awake-aroused state.
A person during this sleep exhibits
Rapid Eye Movements (REM)
and reports vivid dreams.
90-Minute Cycles During Sleep
With each 90-minute cycle, stage 4 sleep decreases and the
duration of REM sleep increases increases. The last
REM stage can last 30+ minutes
tage can last up to 30 minues
90-Minute Cycles During Sleep
For children, deep sleep comprises 40% of the
sleep record; for adults, only 25%.
90-Minute Cycles During Sleep
REM sleep represents about 25% of the sleep
record in adults and older children.
90-Minute Cycles During Sleep
Adults spend almost 60% of their sleep time
in stages 1 & 2
Why do we sleep?
•
•
Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc./ Corbis
•
•
•
We spend on average 36%
of our lives sleeping; in a
90 year old, that
represents 32 years.
On average, humans need
7 – 10 hours sleep.
Newborns require 16
Teens require 9 and get 5
Adults require 7-8 hours
and get 6.5
If applied to the older population as a
whole, at least 13 million Americans are
aware enough of their chronic sleep
deficiency to cite it as a source of misery.
During the 1990s, several health
surveys of 21,000 people 65 years and
older found that more than 50% reported
sleeping badly and feeling poorly rested
upon awakening.
National Institute on Aging
Sleep Deprivation
1. Fatigue
1. Impaired concentration.
2. Emotional irritability.
3. Depressed immune system.
4. Greater incidence of accidents
5. Obesity
6. Mental illness
Sleep Deprivation
31 % of drivers report
falling asleep at the wheel
at least once
100,000 Americans /year die
as a consequence
Accidents
Frequency of accidents increase with loss of
sleep
Why Do We Sleep?
http://www.radiolab.org/story/91528-sleep/ Sleep
Sleep Theories
1. Sleep Protects: Sleeping in the darkness
when predators loomed about kept our
ancestors out of harm’s way.
2. Sleep Helps us Recover: Sleep helps restore
and repair brain tissue.
3. Sleep Helps us Remember: Sleep restores and
rebuilds our memories.
4. Sleep may play a role in the growth process:
During sleep, the pituitary gland releases
growth hormone. Older people release less of
this hormone and sleep less.
Sleep Theories
5. Immune System function
6. Insight and problem solving
7. Neural development and neural connectivity
8. Energy conservation
9. Planning, reasoning, creativity
Sleep Disorders
1. Insomnia: A persistent inability to fall
asleep.
2. Narcolepsy: Overpowering urge to fall
asleep that may occur while talking or
standing up.
3. Sleep apnea: Failure to breathe when
asleep.
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia: A
persistent inability
to fall asleep.
Symptoms:
1. Difficulty falling asleep
2. Interrupted sleep
3. Waking early
Sleep Disorders
Narcolepsy: a
neurological
disorder that affects
the control of sleep.
People experience
intermittent,
uncontrollable
episodes of falling
asleep during the
daytime.
Sleep Disorders
Narcolepsy
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nvMyuZKGKAY - narcolepsy
Sleep Disorders
Sleep Apnea: A
sleep disorder in
which a person’s
breathing is
interrupted during
sleep.
Types include:
1.obstructive sleep apnea,
caused by a blockage of
the airway
2.Central sleep apnea in
which the brain fails to
signal the muscless to
Sleep Disorders
Sleep Disorders
Children are most prone to:



Night terrors: The sudden arousal from sleep
with intense fear accompanied by
physiological reactions (e.g., rapid heart rate,
perspiration) which occur during Stage 4
sleep.
Sleepwalking: A Stage 4 disorder which is
usually harmless and unrecalled the next day.
Sleeptalking: A condition that runs in
families, like sleepwalking.
Dreams
The link between
REM sleep and
dreaming has opened
up a new era of dream
research.
The Biology of Dreaming
Neurobiologists and
neuropsychiatrists
tend to think of
dreaming as shaped by
the activation of brain
neurons.
The activation synthesis model (Hobson and McCarley,
1977) states that dreams are reactions to random nervous
system stimuli which the brain interprets as bizarre
images and other sensory hallucinations.
The Biology of Dreaming
Crick and Mitchison (1983) believe that
the brain’s neural memory systems are
easily overloaded and that REM
eliminates cognitive debris. Dreams are
a mechanism for the nervous system to
clear the brain of unnecessary, even
harmful memories. Remembered dreams
are nothing more than an accidental byproduct of this REM function.
The Biology of Dreaming
David Maurice, Ph.D. (1998), suggests
that humans experience REM sleep to
supply oxygen to the cornea of the eye.
The aqueous humor, the clear watery
liquid in the chamber just behind the
cornea, needs to be “stirred” to bring
oxygen to the cornea. “Without REM,
our corneas would starve and suffocate
while we are asleep with our eyes
closed.”
Why We Dream
Physiological Function:
Dreams provide the
sleeping brain with
periodic stimulation to
develop and preserve
neural pathways. Neural
networks of newborns
are quickly developing;
therefore, they need
more sleep.
Why We Dream
All dream researchers believe we need
REM sleep. When deprived of REM sleep
and then allowed to sleep, we show
increased REM sleep called REM Rebound.
The Psychoanalytic Response
One hundred years of
psychoanalytic research and
experience show that there is much
that can be learned about the
mental and emotional lives of
people by dream interpretation and
other psychological methods.
The Theoretical Controversy
Continues
“Neither the classical psychoanalytic
approach nor the physiologic attacks
on it have been able to explain fully the
purpose or function of dreaming.”
Ramon Greenberg, MD., Harvard Medical School
A Connection between the
Physiological and the
Psychoanalytic
Allen Braun, M.D. has discovered that regions of
the brain which control emotion and motivation
are highly active during REM sleep.
Regions of the brain central to self-discipline,
delay of gratification, and impulse control, are
relatively inactive. Thus, the prefrontal cortex is
unable to carry out its waking task of censoring
material.
Is it possible the person who is the most
inhibited when awake would have the least
active pre-frontal cortex when asleep? This
would fit the model of psychoanalysis, which
suggests that if you repress during the day, the
material will most likely come
oozing out during dreams.
The Freudian View
The dream represents an ongoing wish, along with the
previous days activities. The dream may portray wishes
that have been with us since early childhood. Every
dream is partially motivated by a childhood wish.
Dreams are derived from instinctual needs and personal
experiences.
The Freudian View
Freud did not believe dream interpretation was possible by
the dreamer; dreams could only be interpreted by a trained
psychoanalyst. A primary method for gathering information
about the meaning of the dream was through free association.
Manifest and Latent Content
• The manifest dream is what the dreamer’s
inner censor will permit to float to the surface
of awareness.
• The latent dream is the repressed wish. “One
finds the child with his impulses living on in
the dream.” (Freud)
• Every dream exhibits a point of contact with
the events of the previous day.
What We Dream
Manifest Content: A Freudian term
meaning the story line of dreams.
1. Negative Emotional Content: 8 out of 10 dreams
have negative emotional content.
2. Failure Dreams: People commonly dream about
failure, being attacked, pursued, rejected, or
struck with misfortune.
3. Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking,
sexual dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men
are 1 in 10; and in women 1 in 30.
Freud and Dream Symbols
• Freud assigned only a marginal role to
symbols. He warned against overestimating
the significance of symbols for dream
interpretation.
Dream Theories
Summary
Carl Jung’s Theory
Jung believed in the
psychological significance of
dreams. Like Freud, he
viewed dreams as an
important
gateway to the unknown
parts of the self. The dream
was a direct message from the
personal unconscious.
Carl Jung
1875-1961
Jungian Analysis
Unlike Freud, Jung believed the dreamer could
interpret his/her own dreams using a process involving
the analysis of dreams over time. He suggested taking
similar dreams from the dream journal and merging
the dream images together to form a larger dream.
In addition, Jung encouraged the dreamer to
brainstorm all the different symbolic associations for
each aspect of the dream.
Another stage of Jungian dream analysis is active
imagination. The dreamer mentally evokes a character
from the dream and asks it questions.
Dream Symbolism
• According to Jung, universal symbols are
those rooted to the experience of all
humankind and are, therefore, common
to everyone.
• Jung considered the archetypes of the
collective unconscious to be universal
symbols.
Fritz Perls’ Theory
• According to Fritz Perls, dreams are seen as
being projections of parts of oneself.
Essentially, as the creator of the dream, you are
everything in the dream.
1893-1970
Dream analysis involves much dialogue and
acting out. The dreamer is encouraged to act out
the dream from the perspective of each animate
and inanimate element. All dream symbolism
is unique in that it comes from the dreamer, and
only the dreamer can truly interpret it.
Common Universal Symbols
House
The self
Weather
What one is going through in
life
Water
The emotions, the unconscious, the source of all
life.
Type of water and movement of water give clues
about what is happening in the feelings and the
unconscious.
Time of day
The time of one’s life or one’s state of
being.
(Dawn: youth, optimism; dusk: withdrawal,
approaching death)
People known to you
a particular quality of yourself
Strangers
Qualities of yourself that you do not
own
Animals
Compulsive or habitual ways of thinking and acting
Death
Change
Black horse
Refusal to exercise free will
Vehicles
Information about your physical body
Shoes
Your mental or spiritual foundation
Clothing
One’s outer expression
Naked
You have opened up in your waking life or let
the walls down. Represents a desire to
communicate more deeply with others
Flying
Exercising free choice
Running away and finding your feet and legs
are moving, but you are not moving forward
Trying to do too many things at once and never seeming to get
Silly Dream Symbols
Alligator: treachery
Animals: your own physical
characteristics, primitive desires,
and sexual nature; the untamed and uncivilized aspects of
self.
Crocodile: hidden danger
Dog: skill that you have ignored or
forgotten. Also might mean intuition, loyalty fidelity.
Eel: issues with commitment.
Dream Symbol Dictionaries
• Even universal meaning and generalized
definitions are of minimal value in relation to
self-understanding and personal growth.
• Only through discovering one’s own
translations of symbols and images can the
individual effect change or insight.
• Symbols change meaning according to the
context in which they appear and the personal
experiences of the dreamer
Personal Symbols
• Personal symbols are formed in the
unconscious and are tailored to reflect the
person’s life experience and emotion. The
unconscious is able to create a symbol to
illustrate a particular inner message.
• Understanding personal symbols is one of the
primary goals of dream work.
Dream analysis involves much dialogue and acting out.
The dreamer is encouraged to act out the dream from the
perspective of each animate and inanimate element.
All dream symbolism is unique in that it comes from
the dreamer, and only the dreamer can truly interpret it.
Completing the Plot: another
method of interpretation
• The dreamer rewrites the ending or completes
the plot of his/her dream in a waking state.
Learning to take control and create positive
options in your dream life enhances your
ability to do that in your waking life.
Helpful Hints for Better Dream
Recall
• Before going to sleep
– Expect to remember your dreams
– Review past dreams
– Get ready to record your dreams
– Be prepared to stay awake to make a record
– Review the previous day back to morning
Upon waking
– Follow your dream backwards
– Try and remember all the dreams you can
– Think of events that may have triggered dreams
– Write it down
Dream Recall
• Daily Attitudes
– Value each dream
– Accept all dreams
– Approach recall as a skill
– Expect to recall dreams during the day
Procedures for Recall
• Keep a pad of paper and pen beside your bed.
Date the paper. When you awaken, write
something down.
• When you go to bed, relax your body and
review the day in reverse.
• As you are getting close to falling asleep,
repeat over and over, “When I wake up, I will
remember my dream.”
• When you wake in the morning, don’t move.
Relax and let your mind drift close to the
dream.
• Once you begin to recall the dream, start
writing.
How to Begin Your Own
Interpretation
• What are the unusual or personally significant
images in your dreams?
• What are the primary emotions in your dreams?
• What are the conflicts and/or unresolved issues
in the dream?
• What is currently happening in your conscious,
waking life?
• Are there any associations between your
conscious life and your dreams? Explore.
• Do any common patterns or themes exist in the
dreams that could tie them together? What are
they?
•How are you acting in the dream?
•What are the different feelings in this
dream?
•What are the major actions in this dream?
•Who or what is the adversary in this
dream?
•What or who is helping in this dream?
•What would I like to avoid in this dream?
•What actions might this dream be
suggesting?
•What does this dream want from me?
•Why did I need this dream?
Lucid Dreaming
• When you feel yourself awakening, try to focus your
thoughts on the last dream you were having. Recall
details, feeling, experiences. Then spend ten to fifteen
minutes reading, meditating, or doing something that
requires full wakefulness. Then while lying in bed,
say to yourself: the next time I dream, I want to
recognize that I’m dreaming.” Visualize your body
lying in bed, sleeping. See yourself back in your last
dream, but know that you are dreaming.
• Once in the lucid dream, recognize that you control the
dream.
Prophetic Dreams
• Seventy years ago, Harvard psychologists
Murray and Wheeler tested the prophetic
power of dreams. They invited the public to
report dreams about the kidnapping of Charles
Lindbergh’s baby.
• 1300 people responded: 5% envisioned that the
child was dead
• 4 of the 1300 anticipated the location of the
dead child.
Prophecy?
• In 1990’s tabloid psychics missed the big
events of Oklahoma, 9/11. 65% of police
departments never use psychics. Of those who
had hired psychics, none found the
information useful.
• We tend to notice, interpret, and recall events
that confirm our expectations. Weird
coincidences capture our attention and are
available in memory. All the nonevents are
unnoticed and not remembered.
Whatever. . . .
Bad Dream
Sweet Dream
Get some sleep
Why We Dream
1. Wish Fulfillment: Sigmund Freud suggested
that dreams provide a psychic safety valve to
discharge unacceptable feelings. The dream’s
manifest (apparent) content may also have
symbolic meanings (latent content) that
signify our unacceptable feelings.
2. Information Processing: Dreams may help
sift, sort, and fix a day’s experiences in our
memories.
Hypnosis
http://iddiokrysto.blog.excite.it
A social interaction in
which one person (the
hypnotist) suggests to
another (the subject)
that certain
perceptions, feelings,
thoughts, or behaviors
will spontaneously
occur.
Hypnos: Greek god of sleep
Facts and Falsehood
Those who practice hypnosis agree that its power
resides in the subject’s openness to suggestion.
Can anyone experience hypnosis?
Yes, to some extent.
Can hypnosis enhance recall of
forgotten events?
No.
Facts and Falsehood
Can hypnosis force people to act
against their will?
No.
Can hypnosis be therapeutic?
Yes. Self-suggestion
can heal too.
Can hypnosis alleviate pain?
Yes. Lamaze can
do that too.
Explaining the Hypnotized State
Courtesy of News and Publications Service, Stanford University
1. Social Influence Theory:
Hypnotic subjects may
simply be imaginative
actors playing a social
role.
2. Divided Consciousness
Theory: Hypnosis is a
special state of
dissociated (divided)
consciousness (Hilgard,
1986, 1992).
(Hilgard, 1992)
Mimi Forsyth
Both Theories
Drugs and Consciousness
Psychoactive Drug: A chemical substance that
alters perceptions and mood (affects
consciousness).
Dependence & Addiction
Continued use of a
psychoactive drug
produces tolerance.
With repeated
exposure to a drug,
the drug’s effect
lessens. Thus it takes
greater quantities to
get the desired effect.
Withdrawal & Dependence
1. Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug
(after addiction), users may experience the
undesirable effects of withdrawal.
2. Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to a
feeling of physical pain, intense cravings
(physical dependence), and negative
emotions (psychological dependence).
Misconceptions About Addiction
Addiction is a craving for a chemical substance,
despite its adverse consequences (physical &
psychological).
1. Addictive drugs quickly corrupt.
2. Addiction cannot be overcome
voluntarily.
3. Addiction is no different than repetitive
pleasure-seeking behaviors.
Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive drugs are divided into three groups.
1. Depressants
2. Stimulants
3. Hallucinogen
s
Depressants
Depressants are drugs that reduce neural activity
and slow body functions. They include:
1. Alcohol
2. Barbiturate
s
3. Opiates
Depressants
1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and
memory…and increases aggressiveness while
reducing self awareness.
Ray Ng/ Time & Life Pictures/ Getty Images
Daniel Hommer, NIAAA, NIH, HHS
Drinking and Driving
Depressants
2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity
of the central nervous system, reducing
anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.
Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some
examples.
Depressants
http://opioids.com/timeline
3. Opiates: Opium and
its derivatives
(morphine and
heroin) depress neural
activity, temporarily
lessening pain and
anxiety. They are
highly addictive.
Stimulants
Stimulants are drugs that excite neural activity
and speed up body functions. Examples of
stimulants are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Caffeine
Nicotine
Cocaine
Ecstasy
Amphetamines
Methamphetamines
Cocaine
Cocaine induces immediate euphoria followed by a crash.
Crack, a form of cocaine, can be smoked. Other forms of
cocaine can be sniffed or injected.
http://www.ohsinc.com
Ecstasy
Ecstasy or
Methylenedioxymethamphe
tamine (MDMA) is a
stimulant and mild
hallucinogen. It produces a
euphoric high and can
damage serotoninproducing neurons, which
results in a permanent
deflation of mood and
impairment of memory.
Hallucinogens
Ronald K. Siegel
Hallucinogens are
psychedelic (mindmanifesting) drugs that
distort perceptions and
evoke sensory images
in the absence of
sensory input.
Hallucinogens
Hemp Plant
http://static.howstuffworks.com
1. LSD: (lysergic acid diethylamide) powerful
hallucinogenic drug that is also known as
acid.
2. THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol): is the
major active ingredient in marijuana
(hemp plant) that triggers a variety of
effects, including mild hallucinations.
Near-Death Experiences
(From “Hallucinations” by R.K. Siegel. Copyright
© 1977 Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved.)
After a close brush with
death, many people
report an experience of
moving through a dark
tunnel with a light at
the end. Under the
influence of
hallucinogens, others
report bright lights at
the center of their field
of vision.