Eight Punctuation Tools Scholars
Can Use in Research Writing
Dr. Steve Wallace
Eight Punctuation Tools Scholars Can
Use in Research Writing
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How to Use Colons and Semicolons
How to Use Commas
How to Use Dashes
How to Use a Hyphen
How to Use Nouns as Adjectives
How to Use “As,” “Because,” and “Since”
How to Start a Sentence with “Because”
How to Use Initialisms and Acronyms
Punctuation puts nails in the right
places to hold our paper together
(.,:;-—–)
How to Use Colons and
Semicolons
The colon introduces a list or clause
that explains what precedes it
• “Let’s start by looking at the only rule of colon
use: A colon should only appear after a
complete sentence.”
• “Let’s start by looking at the only rule of colon
use, which is that a colon should only appear
after a complete sentence.”
Example
• “This study will examine: interest rates,
financial structure, management issues, and
systematic processes.”
What follows is a list
What precedes the colon? Not a full sentence
• “This study will examine four major factors:
interest rates, financial structure,
management issues, and systematic processes.”
Single words, phrases, and full sentences can all appear
after a colon
Examples of colon use
• Incorrect: “This study will examine: interest
rates as set by the central bank, the financial
structure of the XYZ company, management
issues involving employees, and systematic
processes used in the XYZ company supply
chain.”
• Correct: “This study will examine four major
factors: Interest rates as set by the central
bank, the financial structure of the XYZ
company, management issues involving
employees, and systematic processes used in
the XYZ company supply chain.”
Semicolon
• The semicolon has two main uses
• 1) In the place of a comma in a list; in such
cases, the semicolon does more than a comma,
allowing us to include complex elements.
• 2) In the place of a period between two
complete sentences; in such cases, the semicolon
does less than a period, allowing us to express a
close topical connection between two
independent sentences.
Semicolons in lists
• “The research on scholars’ academic writing for
international publication confronts three main
issues: The difficulty of finding suitable samples of
academic writing at a similar English level across
domains; the tension between coauthors, given that
their knowledge of English may differ widely; and the
tendency of researchers to value harmonious
working conditions over correcting each other’s
English errors and the possible conflict that it might
create.”
• To separate list items that are complex or that have internal punctuation,
semicolons work far better than commas
The same example with commas
• “The research on scholars’ academic writing for
international publication confronts the difficulty
of finding suitable samples of academic writing at
a similar English level across domains, the tension
between coauthors, given that their knowledge
of English may differ widely, and the tendency
of researchers to value harmonious working
conditions over correcting each other’s English
errors and the possible conflict that it might
create.”
Example of a semicolon between
sentences
• “Rejection by journal editors for poor
English can only be avoided by revising
the document carefully first, to ensure
that English errors have been removed;
this process of revision requires that the
author or proofreader understand how
to use grammatical conventions
accurately in academic writing.”
• To divide two independent sentences while still maintaining a
close connection, semicolons work well
Example without semicolon
• “Rejection by journal editors for poor English
can only be avoided by revising the document
carefully first, to ensure that English errors
have been removed, which means that this
process of revision requires that the author or
proofreader understand how to use
grammatical conventions accurately in
academic writing.”
• Potential ambiguity of which
• Could use a period instead of a semicolon but would lose close
connection
Semicolons divide grammatically while
uniting thematically
• At the end of a sentence, we stop thinking
about the grammatical relationship between
the parts of the sentence.
• A semicolon allows us to end while directly
continuing our idea.
• This is why we so often see semicolons with
conjunctive adverbs and transitional
expressions.
• Examples: however, instead, nevertheless,
specifically, equally important, for example, in
fact, on the contrary
Example of semicolon use
• “Ninety-five percent of students
recognize the importance of clear
writing; however, they often fail to
apply this knowledge when writing
their research papers.”
• These sentences could be separated by a period, but we
prefer to keep them closer.
• Transitional words do not always need semicolons but
semicolons often reflect the relationship we want.
How to Use Commas
• Commas and Coordinating Conjunctions
• Commas in Pairs
• Commas and Relative Clauses
What are Coordinating
Conjunctions?
• A coordinating conjunction can join two
independent clauses with only a comma.
• For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So
• FANBOYS
• Only these seven words can give the
compound-sentence-with-comma
pattern.
Example of Commas and
Coordinating Conjunctions
• “Some researchers believe in first
sending their papers to low impact
journals, but others maintain that first
sending their papers to high impact
journals for review is more effective in
publishing their research.”
• A comma separates the two independent clauses,
indicating that we must read each one separately.
• The ‘but’ following a comma tells us that the next word is
the beginning of a new independent clause.
The comma splice error
• Placing two independent clauses together with a comma and
no conjunction.
• Incorrect:“Reading is part of discovery,
experience indicates that reading the
literature efficiently is essential.”
Corrected by adding ‘and’ before ‘experience’:
• Correct:“Reading is part of discovery, and
experience indicates that reading the
literature efficiently is essential.”
The comma splice error (continued)
What if we replaced the comma with an ‘and’?
• “Reading is part of discovery and
experience indicates that reading the
literature efficiently is essential.”
‘discovery and experience’ looks like a single phrase
• Rule: We always need a comma before a
coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence.
Do not use commas to separate
independent sentences not joined by
conjunctions
• Correct: “X is used in signaling reactions that are essential for
homeostasis, but Y initiates a response that leads to oxidative
stress.”
• Incorrect: “X is used in signaling reactions that are essential
for homeostasis, however Y initiates a response that leads to
oxidative stress.”
• Correct: “X is used in signaling reactions that are essential for
homeostasis; however, Y initiates a response that leads to
oxidative stress.”
Difference between but and however
Similar meaning
• But is a coordinating conjunction and can connect
two independent clauses together with a comma.
• However cannot do this.
• Only coordinating conjunctions work in this
sentence pattern.
• Remember the seven coordinating conjunctions
to avoid this comma error (FANBOYS).
Example of comma before conjunctive adverb error
“The design process starts with an agenda, consequently,
following conventional design methods will lead to a
structure that is only suited to achieving the primary mission.”
1. Use a semicolon
“The design process starts with an agenda; consequently,
following conventional design methods will lead to a structure
that is only suited to achieving the primary mission.”
• Best and easiest solution
2. Use a coordinating conjunction
“The design process starts with an agenda, and follows
conventional design methods leading to a structure that is
only suited to achieving the primary mission.”
• Grammatically correct but may change meaning
3. Use a period
“The design process starts with an agenda. Consequently,
following conventional design methods will lead to a structure
that is only suited to achieving the primary mission.”
• Grammatically correct but does not express the close relationship
Using pairs of commas
• Good: “This novel approach, proposed by Chang, has
provided an alternative to conventional methods.”
• Bad: “This novel approach, proposed by Chang has
provided an alternative to conventional methods.”
• Bad: “This novel approach proposed by Chang, has
provided an alternative to conventional methods.”
• Good: “This novel approach proposed by Chang has
provided an alternative to conventional methods.”
•
A single comma will confuse your readers because it does not clarify the grammatical role of
the adjacent information
Commas define what is integral
A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun (which, that, who, whom,
whose)
“Researchers, whose papers are frequently rejected,
start to believe that editors and reviewers
personally dislike them.”
This is not incorrect, but it does not say what the author intended.
“Researchers whose papers are frequently rejected
start to believe that editors and reviewers
personally dislike them.”
This shows that it is about a subgroup of researchers “whose papers are
frequently rejected.” In the first sentence, we have to read the relative
clause as supplementary information about all researchers
Commas define what is supplementary
• “Given the economic conditions in
Thailand, which is located in Southeast
Asia, government programs for
stimulating local business is essential.”
• You do not need any additional information to know
what is meant by Thailand. Its location within its
continent is obviously supplementary information.
that / which
• “The samples that showed a change in d2H
between precursor and product were analyzed by
2H NMR.”
Not all samples showed a change in d2H; those that did
were submitted to 2H NMR.
• “The samples, which showed a change in d2H
between precursor and product, were analyzed
by 2H NMR.”
All samples showed a changed in d2H and were submitted
to 2H NMR; “which” clause disposable.
Examples
• The books, which stem from the 1960s and
the early 1980s, show Smith emphasizing the
use of grammar in classroom instruction.
• The books that stem from the 1960s and the
early 1980s show Smith emphasizing the use
of grammar in classroom instruction.
How to use which/that
Integral
Supplementary
That
Yes
No
Which
No
Yes
Which with commas
That without commas
Summary on that / which
• Use “that” to introduce defining or restrictive
clauses. Do not use commas
• Use “which” to introduce non-defining or
nonrestrictive clauses. Use commas
How to Use Commas (review)
• Commas and Coordinating Conjunctions
• Commas in Pairs
• Commas and Relative clauses
How to Use Dashes
• A hyphen joins two words into a unit.
• ‘On-site coordinator’ or ‘high-tech company’
• A short dash (called an en-dash because it is the
width of the letter ‘n’) separates items such as
dates or page numbers (e.g., 1611–1676 or pp.
136–8).
• A long dash (called an em-dash because it is the
width of a letter ‘m’) is what we are discussing.
• —
En dash range style
(e.g., APA)
Hyphen range style
(e.g., AMA*)
Running text spell-out
June–July 1967
June-July 1967
June and July 1967
1:15–2:15 p.m.
1:15-2:15 p.m.
1:15 to 2:15 p.m.
For ages 3–5
For ages 3-5
For ages 3 through 5
pp. 38–55
pp. 38-55
pages 38 to 55
President Jimmy Carter
(1977–81)
President Jimmy Carter
(1977-81)
President Jimmy Carter, in
office from 1977 to 1981
Single dashes are not for academic
writing
• “One task is more important than any
other to the junior scholar and will
determine whether he receives funding,
promotion and tenure—academic
publishing.”
• Dash could be replaced by a comma or a colon. A colon
signals what follows will complement or complete what
precedes it. A comma plays so many roles that I choose a
colon when I have a choice.
Another example of single dash
• “The range of activities an academic
must participate in compete for his time
to write—such activities are important
but should not be allowed to take the
place of scholarly writing.”
• Replace the dash with either a semicolon or a period. A
semicolon is best because of the closeness the author was
trying to show with the dash.
Single dash is fine in casual writing
• The single dash can play the role of a comma,
colon, or period.
• Nothing is added and you may lose clarity, and
you will lose formality.
• The single dash has no place in academic
writing.
• One possible defense of the single dash in
academic writing is it does draw real attention
to what follows it.
Double dashes are used to interrupt a
sentence
• “The issues that prevent doctoral
students from writing—most importantly,
their lack of familiarity with academic
vocabulary—are a serious concern for
advising professors.”
• The phrase separated by dashes must be grammatically
inessential.
• We use dashes when something important is being added to a
sentence and use parentheses to signal that the interruption
is unimportant (e.g., to give dates or citations or
examples). Commas fall somewhere in the middle.
Why you might use dashes in formal
writing
• Double dashes can be used in a sentence that already
has enough commas.
• Double dashes are common in some fields (most
humanities fields) and rare in others (many scientific
fields). If they are rare in your field, do not use them.
• Regardless of field, double dashes should be used seldom;
they draw attention to themselves, and the audience will
grow tired of them if they are overused.
• Overall, use double dashes—if they are appropriate to
your field—in moderation.
• Replace single dashes with colons, commas, or even
periods.
When to use a hyphen
• The American Institute of Physics (AIP) Style
Manual says "avoid the hyphen when it does
not serve a useful purpose."
• Incorrect use of hyphens causes confusion.
• “twenty-four hour reactions”
has a different meaning from
• “twenty four-hour reactions”
Hyphens make compound words
• Compound words are two words with equal
function, so that the compound is a single word
with a different meaning.
• one-to-one correspondence
• blue-green
• gain-bandwidth product
• analog-to-digital conversion
• state-of-the-art
• scholar-poet
Most compound adjectives are hyphenated
when they immediately precede the noun
• differential-mode
current
• well-known fact
• high-frequency
behavior
• low-pass filter
• odd-integer terms
• steady-state voltage
or current
• common-mode
voltage
The same words used as a noun are
not hyphenated:
open-circuit voltage
short-circuit current
but:
"The configuration was an
open circuit."
first-aid kit
but:
"You should give first aid."
worst-case event
but:
"Consider the worst case."
high-voltage supply
low-voltage system
but:
“There was high voltage on the
wires that were supposed to
carry low voltage.“
Compound words containing numbers
or "half-" are hyphenated:
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•
half-baked
half-life
half-width
one-half
three-electrode tube
four-terminal capacitor
first-order approximation
two-thirds (2/3)
8-bit digitizer
All compounds formed with "-free" are
hyphenated
• divergence-free
• sugar-free
• toxin-free
Do not use a hyphen
• In foreign phrases used as adjectives
– Ad hoc
– In vitro
Do not use a hyphen in a compound adjective when
the first word is an adverb ending in ly
• No hyphen is required to make a compound
adjective when the first word is an adverb
ending in “ly.”
• “intensely colored crystals” = “intense-colored
crystals”
• Not “intensely-colored crystals”
• highly competent person
• fully ionized gas
How would you change this
sentence?
• We developed a fully-automated method that
estimates the position of the diaphragm.
• We developed a fully automated method that
estimates the position of the diaphragm.
How would you change this
sentence?
• The surgically-removed tissue specimen was
then subjected to histopathological
examination.
• The surgically removed tissue specimen was
then subjected to histopathological
examination.
Use a hyphen
• When the meaning is ambiguous without a
hyphen
– Low-frequency amplitudes/Low frequency
amplitudes
– Large-bowel obstruction/Large bowel obstruction
• In series and ranges, a hyphen must be placed
after the first term in the compound
– Low- and high-frequency amplitudes
Use a hyphen
•
•
•
•
Abbreviations and initialisms (“post-GKRS”)
Proper nouns (“pre-Victorian era”)
Numerals (“2.7-fold” but “twofold”)
Ambiguity in meaning (“recover” and “recover”; “unionize” and “un-ionize”)
Use a hyphen
• When the first term is a number
– 5-g dose
– 3-year-old child
– Exception: Chemistry papers
– Two-way analysis of variance
Use a hyphen
• When the second term is a participle (verb
used as a noun)
– Evidence-based approach
– Work-related stress
– Seizure-inducing drug
• When the terms have equal weight
– Case-control study
Do not hyphenate words formed by
prefixes
• Note that this rule says that the following
have no hyphen:
• nonlinear
• coauthor
• metastable
• multiconductor
• semiconductor
• infrared LED
Do not hyphenate prefixes, except:
Compounds with "self-,
all-, ex-, and quasi-"
When there is otherwise
are hyphenated:
a repeating sequence of
self-extinguishing, allletters that is confusing
inclusive, ex-president or ugly:
When the last letter of the • non-ionizing , nonprefix is identical to the
oscillatory
first letter of the
photo-ionization, refollowing word:
reading
anti-intellectual, nonFor example,
negative,
"nonoscillatory" looks
semi-independent
like "no no scillatory"
Nouns as Adjectives
Nouns as Adjectives
• Adjectives describe nouns.
• Some adjectives have suffixes, a group of
letters attached to the end of a word to
change its meaning.
• Other adjectives are simply nouns used in
adjectival form.
Describing a Stop Sign
• Incorrect description: “large, octagon, and red”
• “Octagonal” has the suffix “-al,” which makes
it an adjective
• Other adjectival suffixes “-ar,” “-ic,” “-ous,”
and “-y”
• Examples: “polar,” “economic,” “momentous,”
and “easy”
not “Organization development” rather
“Organizational development”
not “Matter concepts” rather “material concepts”
Some nouns do not require suffixes to
be adjectives
• a protein structure
• a silicon pore
• student athletes
• The nouns “protein,” “pore,” and “student” do not
receive suffixes when used as adjectives.
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•
However:
a structural protein
porous silicon
athletic students
When using nouns as adjectives, they
must be written in singular form
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•
•
Not “chocolate chips cookie”
“chocolate chip cookie”
Not “students athletes”
“student athletes”
Exception: “data” and “media” are
used as adjectives:
• data analysis
• data processing
• media outlet
• media campaign
“Datum analysis” and “medium campaign”
would not be appropriate because “data” and
“media” are commonly used
How to Use As, Because, and
Since
Definition of Because
• The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines
because as a conjunction (a word that is used
to join two sentences, clauses, phrases, or
words) as follows:
• 1: For the reason that
• 2:The fact that
Definition of Since
• The Merriam-Webster Dictionary provides
several definitions
• Since is defined first as an adverb:
• 1: From a definite past time until now
• 2: Before the present time
• 3: After a time in the past
Since is also a conjunction:
• 1: At a time in the past after or later than, or from
the time in the past when
• 2: Because
• Since may also be used as a preposition:
• 1: In the period after a specified time in the past or
from a specified time in the past
• Since has more applications than Because and most
relate to time
Do not use Since to mean Because
Sixth edition of The Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association states:
• “Since is more precise when it is used to refer
only to time (to mean ‘after that’); otherwise,
replace with because” (p.84).
since / because
since (conjunction): from the time in the past
when
• Example
“He had wanted to be a biologist since he was
12 years old.”
since (conjunction): because
• Example
“Since the data were incomplete, the paper
could not be published.”
since / because
• “The study could not be performed since the
equipment malfunctioned.”
• “The study could not be performed because
the equipment malfunctioned.”
Definition of As
• The Merriam-Webster Dictionary provides five
functions for this word. We shall examine the first
three. The first usage is as an adverb.
• 1: To the same degree or amount
• 2: For instance
• 3:When considered in a specified form or relation
The second usage of as is a
conjunction:
1: As if
2: In or to the same degree in which
3: In the way or manner that
4: In accordance with what or the way in which
5: While, when
6: Regardless of the degree to which
7: Because
8: That the result is
The third usage of as is as a preposition:
1: Like
2: In the capacity, character, condition, or role of
Do not use as to mean while
• Tenth edition of the American Medical Association Manual of
Style states:
• “As, because, and since can all be used
when ‘for the reason that’ is meant.
However, in this construction, as should
be avoided when it could be construed to
mean while” (p. 386).
Example of unclear As
• He could not accurately examine the
patient as he was looking at another
patient’s chart.
• while or because?
• Better: He could not examine the patient
because he was looking at another
patient’s chart.
Review on Since, As, and Because
• Because we can use as and since in various
ways, many style guides recommend using
each word to have only one meaning.
• Thus, we seldom use since or as to mean
because.
• We use since only for situations that refer to
time.
How to Start a Sentence with Because
• Common Grammar myth
• Question: In academic writing, why do
we care about our English?
• Student’s Answer: Because we do not
want to be rejected by the journal editor.
• This is wrong because it is a fragment
What makes a complete sentence?
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•
•
•
1) it contains a subject
2) it contains a predicate (verb)
3) it expresses a complete thought
“Because we do not want to be rejected by
the journal editor.”
• Fails test three
• Subject and predicate, but only a partial
thought
How to start a sentence with because
• New student answer: We do not want to be
rejected by the journal editor.
• Even better student answer: We care about
English because we do not want to be
rejected by the journal editor.
Incomplete thoughts occur when a
dependent clause is used as a sentence
• A subordinating conjunction makes a clause dependent.
• Because is a subordinating conjunction, so is when, if, and
while.
• Incomplete: Because I don’t like stinky tofu.
• Complete: Because I don’t like stinky tofu, I
avoid going to night markets.
• Incomplete: When students act crazy.
• Complete: When students act crazy, teachers
often take sick days.
Suggestion for English Teachers
• Tell students to finish their thoughts
• Question: Why do we care about our English?
• Student: Because we do not want to be rejected by
the journal editor.
• Teacher: Finish the thought: Because we do not
want to be rejected by the journal editor…what?
• Student: Because we do not want to be rejected by
the journal editor, we care about our English.
• Teacher: Exactly.
A complex sentence is correct wherever a
subordinate clause is placed
• Correct: I avoid going to night markets
because I don’t like stinky tofu.
• Correct: Because I don’t like stinky
tofu, I avoid going to night markets.
Because is shorter than:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
due to the fact that
owing to the fact that
on account of
on the grounds that
the reason is because
the reason is that
as a result of
in view of
by cause of
by virtue of
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
for the reason that
for the sake of
in as much as
in behalf of
in the interest of
is caused by
on account of
on the grounds that
Because is clearer than:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
due to
since
as
being
considering
seeing
since
•
•
•
•
•
•
thanks to
through
over
owing to
in that
now that
How to Use Abbreviations:
Initialisms and Acronyms
Abbreviations – Two Types
• 1) Initialisms
• 2) Acronyms
• Both must be introduced by providing the full
term first:
• “The effects of using ‘diphenyl phosphate (DP)’
in an aqueous solution were investigated.”
Initialisms
• Initialisms are abbreviations from initial
letters
• “FAQ” = “frequently asked question”
• “IEEE” =“Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers”
• “AFM”= “atomic force microscopy”
• “ESL”= “English as a second language”
• “FWHM”= “full width at half maximum”
Acronyms
• Acronyms form a new, phonetically pronounced word:
• laser = light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation
• radar= radio detection and ranging
• scuba= self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus
• Common words so not “LASER,”“RADAR,” and
“SCUBA.”
• Acronyms generally written in all capital letters:
• MET = mobile equipment technology
• PIN = personal identification number
Why do we care about the difference?
• Changes pronunciation and thus affects
grammar
• acronyms (“AIDS”) or initialisms (“HIV”)
• “HIV” (“aitch-eye-vee”) requires the general article “an”
“Our institute has implemented an HIV testing
and counseling program.”
• “Our institute has implemented a human
immunodeficiency virus testing and
counseling program.”
Some initialisms represent pluralized
terms
• These initialisms are written without plural
markers because the pluralized term is
generally treated as a singular noun.
• “IS” for “information systems”
• “GM” for the corporation “General Motors”
• Not “ISs” or “GMs”
Avoiding redundancy
•
•
•
•
•
•
Use “RIE” to represent “reactive-ion etching”
Not “RIE etching,”
Not “PIN number”
Not “ATM machine”
Not “RAM memory”
Okay in conversation, but avoid in research
writing.
Capitalizing terminology
• Capital letters in initialisms do not always
represent capital words.
• “TQM” is “total quality management”
• Not “Total Quality Management” because the
term is not a proper noun.
• Shows readers how much you know about the
terms they represent.
References
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•
•
•
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•
•
1. Garner, B. Garner's Modern American Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2003, p. 277.
2. Strunk, William; and White, E.B. The Elements of Style, Fourth Edition. New York,
Longman, 2000, pp. 44-5.
3. O’Conner, P. Woe Is I: The Grammarphobe’s Guide to Better English in Plain
English. New York: Riverhead Books, 1996, p. 110.
4. Burchfield, R. W, ed. The New Fowler’s Modern English Usage. Third edition.
New York: Oxford, 1996, p. 232.
5. American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2005, pp. 151-2.
6. Burchfield, R. W, ed. The New Fowler’s Modern English Usage. Third edition.
New York: Oxford, 1996, p. 233.
7. O’Conner, P. Woe Is I: The Grammarphobe’s Guide to Better English in Plain
English. New York: Riverhead Books, 1996, p. 190.
8. American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006, p.1624.
For further discussion on academic writing
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