Chapter 4
Social Interaction
and Social Structure
What Is Society?
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A system of social interaction that includes culture and social organization.
Members of a society have a common culture though there may be great diversity
within it.
Within society, social interaction is behavior between two or more people that is given meaning
by them.
Technology and Interaction
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The introduction of new
technologies is transforming how
people interact with each other.
Macro- and Microanalysis
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Macroanalysis is a sociological approach that takes the broadest view of society by
studying patterns of social interaction that are complex and highly differentiated.
In the microanalynic approach, sociologists study patterns of social interactions
that are less complex and less differentiated.
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Describes the order established in social groups at any level.
Social organization brings regularity and predictability to human behavior and is present at every
level of interaction, from the whole society to the smallest groups.
Social Organization
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An established and organized system of social behavior with a recognized purpose.
The term refers to the broad systems that organize specific functions in society.
Examples:
◦ Family provides for the care of the young and the transmission of culture.
◦ Religion organizes sacred beliefs.
Social Institutions
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Socialization of new members.
Production and distribution of goods and services.
Maintain stability and existence.
Provide members with a sense of purpose.
Purpose of Social Institutions
Social Institutions
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Birth occurs within social institutions
that vary in different societies.
Here you see the contrast in how
birth is defined as a medical event in
the United States, contrasted with a
health assistant attending a birth in
rural Mexico.
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Refers to the organized pattern of social relationships and social institutions that
compose society.
Example: Social class distinctions
◦ Class shapes the access different groups have to the resources of society, and
many interactions people have with each other.
Social Structure
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Emile Durkheim, a French sociologist, argued that people in society had a collective
consciousness.
He defined this as the beliefs common to a society that give people a sense of
belonging and a feeling of moral obligation.
According to Durkheim, collective consciousness gives groups solidarity because
members feel they are part of one society.
Durkheim and Collective
Consciousness
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Mechanical solidarity arises when individuals feel bonded by their similarity.
Organic solidarity arises when individuals are bonded through their division of labor.
Durkheim: Social Solidarity
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Gemeinschafts are characterized by a sense of “we”, a moderate division of labor,
strong personal ties, strong family relationships, and a sense of personal loyalty.
Gesellschafts are characterized by less prominence of personal ties, a somewhat
diminished role of the nuclear family, and a lessened sense of personal loyalty to
society.
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
Societies
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Foraging
Pastoral
Horticultural
Agricultural
Industrial
Postindustrial
Types of Societies
Types of Societies
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Different types of societies produce
different kinds of social relationships.
Some may involve more direct and
personal relationships, whereas
others produce more fragmented and
impersonal relationships.
Examples of Types of Societies
Foraging
Pygmies of Central Africa
Pastoral
Bedouins of Africa and Middle East
Horticultural
Incan empire of Peru
Examples of Types of Societies
Agricultural
American South, pre-Civil War
Industrial
19th and 20th century United States and Western
Europe
Postindustrial
Contemporary United States
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A collection of individuals who
◦ interact and communicate with each other
◦ share goals and norms
◦ are aware of themselves as a distinct social unit
Characteristics of Groups
Social Groups
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Social groups are organized around different kinds of relationships, but involve a
“we” feeling.
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A status is a rank in society.
◦ Vice president of the United States
Statuses occur within institutions.
◦ “High school teacher” is a status within the education institution.
Typically, an individual occupies many statuses simultaneously.
Statuses
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A status set is the complete set of statuses occupied by a person at a given time.
Status inconsistency exists where statuses occupied by a person bring different
amounts of prestige and differing expectations.
Achieved statuses are those attained by individual effort.
Ascribed statuses are those occupied from the moment a person is born.
Status
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Myth:
◦ Gender is an ascribed status where one’s gender identity is established at birth.
Sociological perspective
◦ Gender is a social construct and thus is also an achieved status.
Debunking Society’s Myths
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A role is the expected behavior associated with a particular status.
Statuses are occupied; roles are acted or “played.”
A person’s role set includes all the roles occupied by the person at a given time.
Roles
Role Modeling
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In role modeling, a person imitates the behavior of an admired other.
A College Student’s Role Set
Role Strain
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Changes in the roles for women who
are mothers can create role strain.
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Touch
Pitch, loudness and rhythm of the voice.
Gestures, facial expressions
Use of personal space.
Nonverbal Communication
Touch
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Patterns of touch reflect differences in the power that is part of many social
relationships
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Meaning is conveyed by the amount of space between individuals.
The more friendly people feel toward each other, the closer they will stand.
According to anthropologist E. T. Hall we carry around us a proxemic bubble that
represents our personal, three-dimensional space.
When people we don’t know enter our proxemic bubble, we feel threatened.
Proxemic Communication
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Close proximity
Exposure
Physical attractiveness
Similarity in status, race, ethnicity, religion, personality, attitudes and opinions.
Factors in Attraction
Imprinting
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Konrad Lorenz, the animal
behaviorist, shows that adult ducks
that have imprinted on him the
moment they were hatched will follow
him anywhere, as though he were
their mother duck.
Interpersonal Attraction
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Romantic love is idealized in this
society as something that “just
happens,” but research shows that
interpersonal attraction follows rather
predictable patterns
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Myth:
◦ Love is an emotional experience that you cannot predict or control.
Sociological perspective:
◦ Love can be predicted by such factors as proximity, how often you see the
person, how attractive you perceive the person to be, and whether you are
similar in social class, race–ethnicity, religion, age, educational aspirations, and
general attitudes.
Debunking Society’s Myths
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Perception of what is real is determined by the subjective meaning we attribute to
an experience.
There is no objective reality.
Social Construction of Reality
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Disrupting social norms and observing how individuals attempt to restore normalcy.
Human interaction takes place within a consensus and interaction is not possible
without this consensus.
Ethnomethodology
Theories of Social Interaction
The Social Construction of Reality
Interprets
society as:
organized around the subjective
meaning that people give to social behavior
Analyzes social
interaction as:
based on the meaning people give to actions in society
Theories of Social Interaction
Ethnomethodology
Interprets
society as:
held together through the consensus that people share around
social norms; you can discover these norms by violating them
Analyzes social
interaction as:
a series of encounters in which people manage their impressions
in front of others
Theories of Social Interaction
Dramaturgy
Interprets
society as:
a stage on which actors play their social roles and give impression
to those in their “audience”
Analyzes social
interaction as:
enactment of social roles played before a social audience
Theories of Social Interaction
Social Exchange Theory
Interprets
society as:
a series of interactions that are based on estimates of rewards
and punishments
Analyzes social
interaction as:
a rational balancing act involving perceived costs and benefits of a
given behavior
Theories of Social Interaction
Game Theory
Interprets
society as:
a system in which people strategize “winning” and “losing” in their
interactions with each other
Analyzes social
interaction as:
calculated risks to balance rewards and punishments
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Dramaturgy is a way of analyzing interaction that assumes participants are actors in
the drama of everyday social life.
People present different faces (give different impressions) on different stages (in
different situations) with different others.
Goffman: Impression Management
and Dramaturgy
Impression Management
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Impression management is the
display of how you want others to
define you.
It can be especially obvious when you
feel strong attachments to a
particular group or identity.
Internet Network Sites
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Internet-based network sites, such as
Facebook and MySpace, are
transforming how people form and
sustain relationships with others.