Cross Cultural Psychology:
Introduction
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
14 May 2009
Course Outline
• Introduction
• Cross-Cultural research methods
• Culture and:
– Development
– Cognition
– Perception
– Language
– Social Interactions, Gender, and Emotions
• Intercultural Relations
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Overview
• Psychology
• Culture
• Cross-Cultural Psychology
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Psychology
• Psychology: Scientific study of human behavior
and mental functions
– Scientific Study: Systematic, objective methods of
observing behavior and mental functioning
– Behavior: Activity that can be observed, recorded,
and measured
– Mental Functions: Infer from observable behavior
• Areas of Study: Perception, Cognition,
Development, Emotion, Personality, Motivation,
Interpersonal relationships
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Psychology
• Psychology: Study of behavior and mental processes
– Assumption: People are similar across cultures
• Hypothesize factors within cultures that influence mental processes
• Anthropology: Study of human beings in all places and at
all times
– Cultural Anthropology: Systematic comparison of different
cultures
– Assumption: People are different across cultures
• Needs Assessment: Studies that determine and address
gaps between current conditions and desired conditions
– Assess local opinions about development and aid projects
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Psychology
• Purpose of Psychology: Understand, explain,
predict, and control behavior
– Observe human behavior
•
•
•
•
Response time
Frequency of behaviors
Performance on cognitive tasks
Self-report on questionnaires
– Develop hypothetical constructs that explain
patterns of performance in human behavior
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Research Studies
• Psychological Construct: Hypothetical concept created to
explain common patterns of behavior across participants
– Unobservable
– Independent and dependent variables in psychological studies
– Researcher has to develop ways of manipulating and measuring
the variables
• Participants: Those who participate in the study
– Population vs. Sample
– In most psychological studies, participants are not variables in
studies
– In cross-cultural psychology studies, the culture of a participant
may be an independent variable
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Research Studies
• When reporting the method of a research study,
address three questions:
– What? What are the independent and dependent
variables in the study?
• These variables are not directly observable
– How? How were the independent and dependent
variables measured?
• Since the key variables are not observable, how did the
researcher measure or manipulate them?
– Who? Who were the people that participated in the
study?
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Psychology
• Deterministic: One variable completely
determines another
– Guarantee
• Probabilistic: One variable increases the
probability of another
– Substantial number of variables that influence
each outcome
– Free will
– Psychology is probabilistic
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Culture
• Culture: Shared way of life of a group of people
• Culture: Shared patterns of behaviors and interactions,
cognitive constructs, and affective understanding
learned through the process of socialization
– Culture is NOT: Artifacts, tools, or other tangible cultural
elements
– Culture IS: How members of the cultural group interpret,
use, and perceive the objects
• Culture consists of: Values, beliefs, attitudes,
interpretations, and perspectives that distinguish one
group of people from another
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Culture
• Culture is manifested by:
– Symbols: Communication or object that carries a
particular meaning within a group
– Heros: People who possess characteristics highly
prized in a culture
– Rituals: Social activities that are socially essential
– Values: Preferences of a specific state of affairs to
others (e.g., good-bad)
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Characteristics of Culture
• Culture is:
– An adaptive mechanism
– Learned
• Cultures change
– Rate of cultural change differs by culture
– Cultural diffusion: Cultural practices pass to a different
culture
• People tend to be unaware of their cultural practices
– Ethnocentrism: Judging another culture in terms o one’s
own culture
• Culture defines acceptable behavior patterns
• Cultures do not currently exist in isolation
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Dimensions of Culture:
Hofstede Model (Hofstede, 2001)
• Power Distance: Extent to which less powerful
members accept that power is unequally
distributed
• Uncertainty Avoidance: Tolerance for ambiguity
• Individualism vs. Collectivism: Degree to which
people are integrated into groups
• Masculinity vs. Femininity: Distribution of values
between the genders
• Long-term vs. Short-term orientation: Choice of
focus for people’s efforts to the future, present,
or past
http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~culture/hoftstede.htm
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Power Distance
Small Power Distance
Large Power Distance
• Parents and children are
equals
• Older people not respected
or feared
• Student-centered education
• Subordinates expect to be
consulted
• Parents teach children
obedience
• Older people are respected
and feared
• Teacher-centered education
• Subordinates expect to be
told what to do
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Uncertainty Avoidance
Weak Uncertainty Avoidance
Strong Uncertainty Avoidance
• Uncertainty in life is
accepted
• Lower stress
• Higher scores on well-being
• Comfortable with ambiguity
and chaos
• Uncertainty is felt as a
threat to be fought
• High stress
• Lower scores on well-being
• Need for clarity and
structure
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Individualism and Collectivism
Individualism
• Everyone is expected to only
take care of themselves and
immediate family
• Right of privacy
• Speaking one’s mind is healthy
• Others classified as individuals
• Purpose of education is to
learn how to learn
• Task prevails over relationship
Collectivism
• Everyone is expected to
protect extended families
• Stress on belonging
• Harmony is always
maintained
• Others classified as in-group
or out-group
• Purpose of education is
learning how to do
• Relationship prevails over
task
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Feminine and Masculine
Femininity
Masculinity
• Minimum emotional and
social role differentiation
between genders
• Men and women should be
modest and caring
• Balance between family and
work
• Sympathy for the weak
• Both mothers and fathers deal
with facts and feelings
• Both boys and girls may cry
but neither should fight
• Mothers decide on family size
• Maximum emotional and
social role differentiation
between genders
• Men should be assertive and
ambitious
• Work prevails over family
• Admiration for the strong
• Fathers deal with facts,
mothers deal with feelings
• Girls cry, boys fight back
• Fathers decide on family size
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Short and Long-Term Orientation
Short-Term Orientation
Long-Term Orientation
• Most important events in
life occurred in past or take
place now
• Immediate need
gratification expected
• Children should learn
tolerance and respect
• Social spending and
consumption
• Stres on short-term profits
• Most important events in
life will occur in the future
• Need gratification deferred
until later
• Children should learn to be
thrifty
• Saving, investing
• Stress on future market
position
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Cross-Cultural Psychology
• Cross-Cultural Psychology: Systematic
comparison of psychological variables under
different cultural conditions in order to:
– Identify universal aspects of human thought and
behavior
– Identify how culture influences human thought
and behavior
• Key Question: How does culture influence
human behavior and mental processes?
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Cross-Cultural Psychology
(Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 2002)
• Cross-cultural psychology is the study of:
– Similarities and differences in individual
psychological functioning in various cultural and
ethnocultural groups
– The relationships between psychological variables
and socio-cultural, ecological, and biological
variables
– The ongoing changes in psychological, sociocultural, ecological, and biological variables
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Goals of Cross-Cultural Psychology
• Test the generality of psychological knowledge
and theories
• Discover cultural and psychological variations
in non-Western cultures
• Integrate results of general and specific
psychological findings to a universal
psychology that is valid for a broad range of
cultures
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Perspectives in Cross-Cultural
Psychology
• Absolutism: All psychological variables are the same in all
cultures
– Assess constructs using the same methods and instruments
across cultures
• Relativism: All psychological constructs are culturally
influenced
– No comparisons can be made between cultures
• Universalism: All psychological variables are common
between cultures but culture influences the development
and manifestation of psychological characteristics
– Comparisons can be made cautiously, but with modifications to
methods and instruments to make them culturally meaningful.
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Perspectives in Cross-Cultural
Psychology (Berry et al., 2002)
Absolutist
Universalist
Relativist
Context-free
definition of
concepts
Almost always
Difficult to
achieve
Usually
impossible
Context-free
measurement of
constructs
Usually possible
Often impossible
Impossible
Assessment of
constructs
Standardized
instruments
Adapted
instruments
Local instruments
Comparisons
between culture
Straight-forward,
Evaluative
Controlled, Nonevaluative
Usually avoided,
Non-evaluative
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Ecological Context
Ecological Influences
Genetic Transmission
Observable Behaviors
And
Psychological Constructs
Biological Adaptation
And
Cultural Adaptation
Cultural Transmission
Socio-Political Context
Acculturation
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Contributions of Cross-Cultural
Research to Psychology
• Knowledge: Findings of similarities and
differences of behavior and mental
functioning have added to the body of
psychological knowledge
• Critical Thinking: Psychological findings are
now analyzed to determine whether similar
results will be found in different cultures
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Cross-Cultural Psychology
• Because of cross-cultural research, the
following assumptions now must be made:
– All behavior is learned and occurs in a cultural
context
– Culture must be accounted for in psychological
theories
– More understanding of cultural influences on
behavior is necessary, which may change the way
behavior is studied
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Cross-Cultural Psychology
Modern Psychology
Cultural-Historical Psychology
• Mental processes and
behavior are independent
from the context
• Purpose of psychology is to
isolate mental processes
from the context through
controlled experiments
• Context influences mental
processes and behavior
• Purpose of psychology is to
understand how the mind
and culture mutually
influence each other
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Progression of Cross-Cultural Research
• Beginning: Document differences between
cultures
• Currently: Determine the cultural variables
that produce the differences
– Culture is replaced with specific, measurable
psychological variables hypothesized to account
for cultural differences
• Future: Universal theories of psychological
processes
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Psychology in Nigeria
• What psychological variables are not relevant
to the Nigerian context?
• What psychological variables should be
studied that are unique to the Nigerian
context?
• What are practical problems in Nigerian
society that culturally-relevant psychological
research can address?
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Revision
• What is psychology?
• What is culture? What are the five key ways
that cultures can vary?
• What is the purpose of cross-cultural
research?
• What are the different perspectives that are
taken in cross-cultural psychology?
• What contributions have cross-cultural
research made to the field of psychology?
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos