CHAPTER 3
Research in Psychology:
Methods and Design
Chapter Objectives
• Describe the defining features of a theory in psychology
• Describe how theories: (a) lead to empirical research, (b)
are influenced by the outcomes of research, and (c) need
to be productive, parsimonious, and testable
• Understand the importance of the “What’s next?”
question and the value of research that simultaneously
replicates and extends prior research
Chapter Objectives
• Show how creative thinking occurs in science
• Use computerized databases (e.g., PsycINFO) to
search for information about research in psychology
• Read and understand elements of an empirical
journal article
Varieties of Psychological Research
Basic vs. Applied Research
Basic
designed to describe and understand fundamental
psychological phenomena. Examples: neural correlates of
cognition, behavior, mechanisms of selective attention
(dichotic listening)
Applied
designed to shed light on the solution to real-world
problems. Example: effect of cell phone use on driving
Surveillance video***
Varieties of Psychological Research
Laboratory
• greater control
• minimal mundane realism
Field
• more realistic
• maximum mundane realism
Experimental realism – the extent to which the study has
an impact on the subjects, forces them to take the matter
seriously, and involves them in the procedures.
Mundane realism- how closely a study mirrors real life
experiences (Milgram)
Varieties of Psychological Research
• Quantitative
• Includes quantitative data and statistical analysis
• Qualitative
• Includes narrative descriptions, content analyses,
interviews
• Much research includes elements of both
• Depression, anxiety studies
Developing Research Ideas: Asking Empirical
Questions
•
Empirical questions
• Answerable with data
• Terms precisely defined
•
Operational definitions
• variables defined in terms of a clearly specified set of operations
• Hunger : 12 hours without food
• Aggression: car honks, delivering shocks, # of fights on playground
• Especially important for animal research
• Important for replication
•
Converging operations
• Understanding increases as studies with different operational definitions
“converge” on the same result
Where to Research Ideas
Come From?
• Our own observations
Kitty Genovese (1964) Bystander effect
• Sometimes from serendipitous events (discovering
something while looking for something else)
• Hubel and Wiesel (1959, 1962): “edge detectors”
Developing Research from Theory
• The nature of theory
• Summarizes, organizes, explains, provides basis for predictions
regarding a particular phenomenon
• Includes constructs  hypothetical factors not observed directly;
involved in the attempt at explanation
• e.g., cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957)
• The relationship between theory and data
• Hypotheses deduced from theory; reasoning from general
statements to make predictions (hypotheses)
• Outcomes/data provide or fail to provide inductive support for
theory
• theories are never “true” nor “false”; more like “working truths” or “true until
proven false”
An example of logical
reasoning…
If a bird is a crow, then it will be black.
Here’s a black bird.
Here is a yellow bird.
Then it must be a crow.
Then it is not a crow.
If task-set reconfiguration (TSR) theory is true, RT (repeat) < RT (switch)
RT (repeat) was indeed < RT (switch)
RT (repeat) was not < RT (switch)
TSR theory is true.
TSR theory is not true.
Developing Research from Theory
• Attributes of good theories
• Productivity
• good theories produce much research and advance our knowledge
• e.g., cognitive dissonance theory
• Falsification
• good theories can be shown to be wrong (fail to be supported by the
data)
• Although researchers want to be right, still attempt to falsify their own work.
• Parsimony
• good theories are concise and provide a simple explanation for results
• Clever Hans
• Simpler (more “parsimonious”) explanation (visual cues)
Developing Research from Theory
• Misunderstandings about theories
• “It’s not a fact; it’s only a theory.”
• “It’s just a theory; there’s no proof.”
• “Here’s my theory about that.”
Developing Research from Other Research
• Research teams and the “What’s Next?” Question
• Programs of research
• Series of interrelated studies
• Research teams and the apprentice model
• Use of pilot studies
• Replication and extension
• Exact replication rare
• The norm in Pavlov’s lab, to train new workers
• Extension  partial replication, with new features added to
extend the findings
Reviewing the Literature
• Computerized database searches
• In psychology  PsycINFO/ Google Scholar
• Search tips
• Using truncated search terms to avoid being too narrow
• Search results
• Take note of source (e.g., journal article, book, dissertation)
• Read Abstracts provided when you click on the title
Sections of a Scientific Paper
• Cover Page
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Methods
• Results
• Discussion
• References
• Tables & Figures