UNIVERSITY OF ZULULAND
FACULTY OF ARTS
Department of Communication Science
Social Change and Development Communication
(ACOM311)
Lecturer:
P. Moodley
Arts Building
JANUARY – JUNE
2011
COURSE OUTLINE
Course Description
The course focuses on theoretical analysis of the relationship between social change,
development and communication. It will guide you through the principles of Social
Change and Development Communication from various current sources from Public
Relations, Media, Academic and Individual self-awareness of change and
development around the community and workplace.
Learning Outcomes
After this course you should:

Understand the relationship between social change, development and
communication

Be able to define social change

Be able to define development communication and the key circumstances in
which development can take place

Understand the role of communication practitioners as change agents

Analyse/develop a development communication case study/strategy

Be able to define development challenges in South Africa
2
Table of Contents
Pg
1. Welcoming of students
03
2. Course weekly outline
04
3. Lecture Time Table
05
4. Course rules
05
5. Referencing
10
6. Study Unit 1: Culture and Communication
14
7. Study Unit 2: How societies change & develop
18
8. Study Unit 3: Early theories of social change and
development
21
9. Study Unit 4: Development communication
24
10. Study Unit 5: The dominant paradigm in development
30
11. References
34
3
1.
Kind Wishes
Dear Student
The Department of Communication Science welcomes you to your third year of
study at the University of Zululand. This is the will be an exciting stage of your life
because you will be finalizing the goals you set for yourself two years ago will be
determining how they will be fulfilled. You will soon be a member of the academic
community; and you will be expected to live up to their high standards of
excellence! You will achieve this through dedication and commitment to the
academic
programme
set
for
you.
Social
Change
&
Development
Communication is challenging, exciting and dynamic; it is therefore the objective
of this course to provide students with the understanding of theory and practice
that makes ACOM311 A more efficient course. This guide is designed and
planned for you and contains information that will help you plan for the year.
Should you require any other information, please feel free to contact the staff
members in the Department. Prescribed books are available at the library and it
is important for you to obtain a copy because most of the work that will be done
is contained in the books.
2.
Campus
This module is currently offered only at KwaDlangezwa, the University of
Zululand’s main Campus.
KwaDlangezwa
Private Bag X1001
KwaDlangezwa
3886
Website: http://www.comsci.uzulu.ac.za
4
COURSE RULES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
1.
Attendance to Lecturers
Attendance to lecturers is compulsory. An attendance register will be
taken at every lecture. Should you become ill, submit a copy of the
medical certificate to your lecturer. Any other reasons for your
absenteeism will have to be given to your lecturer in writing.
2.
Assessments and tests

These must be written according to the official time-table. If a
student is
prevented from doing so, the student must inform the
lecturer before the commencement of the test

The student must also produce a medical certificate, covering the
full period of absence, immediately upon return.

Should the student not write that test for non-medical reasons, then
they will receive 0% (zero) for that test. There will be no reevaluation under these circumstances.
3.
Assignments

Assignments are to be submitted during the lecturer period
(unless otherwise stipulated by the lecturer)

Meet deadlines and due dates as stipulated in the course outline.

Marks will be deducted for each day that the assignment is not
late.

Submit original work, no plagiarizing or cheating. Abide by the
University’s policies on Plagiarism and Cheating.
4.
Course Mark
5
You will be assessed on four different occasions during the learning
process of this course:
I. Major assignment (20%)
II. Assessment 1 (5%)
III. Assessment 2 (10%)
IV. Assessment 3 (15%)
V. Examination: (50%)
These will be based on the following:
5.

continuous formative assessments

assignments

projects

oral presentations

group work/presentations

attendance to lectures

other class activities
Code of conduct

Attend ALL lectures, seminars and practical work as stipulated in
subject outlines

Ensure prompt lecture attendance

SWITCH OFF cellular phone during lecture

No eating during a lecture

Conduct yourself in an orderly fashion and proper manner during the
lecture or in any other place where such activity will adversely affect
the working environment of others

Do not LOITER about within the lecture halls

Consultation with the academic staff should be done in an orderly
manner
6.
Consultation Times
6
Students are welcome to consult the lecturer regarding problems during
the times stipulated by the lecturer (See times on the lecturer’s office door)
7.
General Guidelines

Reading is the KEY instrument for successful completion of
assignments. Ensure that you read your key texts and other related
material found in the library and internet before attempting your
assignment.

Take notes while reading shaping a mind-map where you write
questions and then work out a structure as to how you are going to
answer the question.

Dates of assignments and assessments are provided in advance so
that you have adequate study and preparation time. If you miss an
assignment deadline, your assignment will not be accepted and you
will be given a ZERO. Should you experience problems, speak to
your lecturer before the assignment is due and not on the due
date.

Assignments must be TYPED.

Font size should be 12 and you should use either Arial/Times New
Roman.

8.
Use 1.5 line spacing.
Cover Page
Ensure that the following appears on the front page of every assignment:
9.

Name and Surname

Student registration number

Due date

The Topic

Lecturer’s name
Content of written assignment
7
Your written assignment should consist of the following:

Table of contents

An introduction – this should briefly explain how you intend to
answer the question (provide aims of the assignment)

The main section of your assignment will consist of all the readings.
This must be arranged in a logical way and should be the most
important part of your assignment. You should ensure that you have
answered the question.

Your conclusion should consist of a summary of the main points.

List of references/bibliography
10. Important terms to consider for your assignment

analyse
make a detailed examination of your topic and
focus on strengths and weaknesses

assess
weigh up pros and cons and give your opinion

compare
weigh up similarities and consider the
difference

contrast
analyse differences, but also comment on
similarities

criticize
express reasoned opinion of the validity of the
topic (emphasising the weakness)

define
set out the exact meaning of concepts

discuss
examine all aspects of the topic, point out
strengths and weaknesses and come to
conclusion

evaluate
means the same as the assess

explain
show why a set of circumstances has arise. Do
not just state the facts – give reasons for the
facts

illustrate
make the concept clear by using examples and
diagrams
8

justify
give adequate grounds for your conclusion

list
enumerate, name set your information out in
point form

outline
get out the main points; leave out any detail

review
critically survey the subject, highlighting the
main points

trace
state the development and the consequences
of events from a given starting point

skimming
read the text fast (without reading every word)

scanning
headings, summaries, keywords, figures and
graphs to give you a brief overview of the
material
REFERENCING YOUR WORK
11. Referencing
is a standardized method of acknowledging printed or electronic
sources of information and ideas that you have used in your essay
or assignment. Direct quotations, facts and figures and ideas and
9
theories from published and unpublished works, must be
referenced. There are many acceptable forms/styles of referencing
and the reference list at the end of your essay gives full details of
all your in-text citations.
Test your knowledge?
What is the difference between a reference list and a bibliography?
Why include references?

To demonstrate that you have read widely and have a broad
appreciation of the subject-matter for example naming
leading theorists in the field

To document the sequential development of knowledge and
understanding in a particular field

To provide illustrative examples of a particular theme

To introduce a discussion within your essay for example
using a quotation which summarises a point of view

To substantiate your essay arguments
12. Referencing examples
12.1 Book references

Books with a single author
Steinberg, S. 2007. An introduction to communication studies.
Cape Town: Juta & Company.
NB. The title of the book is always in italics

Books with two authors
Mersham, G. & Skinner, C. 2005. New Insights
Communication & Media. Cape Town: Heinnemann.
NB. Always cite both authors everytime the reference occurs.

Books with three or more authors
10
into
Platt, J., Richards, J. & Webber, H. 1992. Longman Dictionary of
Applied Linguistics. Essex: Longman.
NB. Cite three or more authors the first time the reference occurs
in your text and in subsequent citations only the name of the
first author followed by et al (‘and others’).

Books with unknown authors
DoE Strategic Planning. Pretoria 2007.

Books with editor/s and editions other than the first.
Trimmer, FJ. & McCrimmon, JM. 1988. Writing with a purpose.
9th edn. Boston: Houghton.

Two books by the same author in the same year.
Silva, T. & Matsuda, PK. Eds. 2001a. On second language
writing. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Silva, T. & Matsuda, PK. Eds. 2001b. On second language
writing. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
NB. The date is followed by a or b.

Articles or chapters in edited books.
Skinner, C. & Mersham, G. 1998. Public relations: A vital
communication function of our times (347-372). In De Beer, AS.
Ed. Mass Media towards the millennium: The South African
handbook of mass communication. Hatfield: J.L. van Schaik.
NB. The chapter page numbers can be given in brackets either
after the chapter’s title or after the publisher. Bibliographic
detail of the book starts with In after the chapter details. The
title of the book is in italics NOT the title of the chapter.

Encyclopaedias
Social relationships. 200. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 26:
543-556
NB. The place of publication and name of publisher are not
necessary.
11

Dictionaries
Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary. 6th edn.. 2000. Oxford:
OUP.
12.3

Journal, magazine and newspaper references
Articles with one to two authors.
Luckett, K. & Chick, JK. 1998. Linguistic description in the service
of history. South African Journal of Linguistics, 16(3): 81-95.
NB. The name of the journal is always in italics, followed by the
journal volume, number and page references. For citing of
authors, follow the guideline for books.

Weekly and monthly periodicals
Corbet-Owen, C. 2007. December. It’s all in the mind. The Oprah
Magazine. 79-80.

Articles in daily newspapers.
Waterworth, T. 2008. Crime Clout. Weekend Zululand Observer:
1-2. November 28.
NB. Treat newspapers like magazines or journals. A colon
follows the title of the newspaper then the page reference
is given. The month and day of publication follow the page
reference.
12.3 Electronic references

World Wide Web (www) page references
Developing a strategic plan for educational leadership. 2004.
Available from http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/CONF/EdPlan.html
[Accessed 16 May 2004]
For further reference style refer to the following book:
Sandra, C. 2008. ed. Communication: A hands on approach.
Lansdowne: Juta & Company.
12
STUDY UNIT 1
1. Culture and communication as a mainstream
You studied the concept of communication in Steinberg’s (2007) Communication
studies: an introduction, which deals with various aspects of communication.
13
1.1 Culture
: is a shared, learned, symbolic system of values, beliefs and attitudes that
shapes and influences perception and behavior -- an abstract "mental blueprint"
or "mental code."
Culture provides the context in which communication takes place, which proves
that communication does not occur in a vacuum. Communication allows culture
to develop, maintain and perpetuate itself and is the process through which
culture is transmitted (Faure, Parry & Sonderling, 2000:10). It has a multitude of
definitions like communication, from linear where the recipient is passively
accepting the message to negotiation of meaning to establish and maintain
relationship. Can you think of a definition of culture?
1.2 Cultural variables that influence our perception of others
1.2.1 Language;
Language is often the most difficult cultural variable because you use language
to convey your beliefs, values and norms. Language reflects a culture and
transmits meaning and moulds your patterns of thought. Your understanding of
language may differ, for example Westerners view speech as a way to express
ideas and thoughts, clearly and as logically as possible, while in some eastern
cultures words are only a part of and inseparable from the total communication
context.
The link between language and culture can also lead to
misunderstandings, for instance translations from one language to another.
Example:
In the English the idiom “the grass is always greener on the other side ”will be
understood by English speakers to mean that prospects elsewhere always seem
more attractive, however this English idiom will not necessarily be understood by
South Africans who have other languages as their mother tongues.
1.2.2. Non verbal communication
14
While language is usually expressed through your cognition, your nonverbal
communication is spontaneous and ambiguous and is often misinterpreted. Non
verbal communication includes categories, such as kinesics ( body movement,
posture and gestures) proxemics (the distance between people ), haptics (touch),
chronemics (time) and paralanguage ( how loudly or softly you speak). The
greatest barrier in nonverbal intercultural communication is that you do not
always understand the nonverbal communication of people from other cultures.
Example
For instance, direct eye contact when you talk to a superior (kinesics) is a sign of
respect for certain Westerners, however in some traditional African cultures
lowering your eyes in conversation with a superior is often regarded as a sign of
respect.
1.2.3 Cultural world-view
In order to understand the role of cultural world-view, you must distinguish
between the three general cultural world-views, namely the Afrocentric,
Eurocentric, and Asiocentric world views, which are also applicable to South
Africa.
The Afrocentric world view is sometimes described as personalistic
intuitive and based on the ubuntu philosophy. The Eurocentric world view is
often viewed as individualistic, rational and goal- oriented in nature.
The
Asiocentric world view sees materialism as an illusion and claims reality is linked
to the spiritual.
Your cultural world view includes your specific cultures
interpretation of the world and how your life is influenced by interpersonal
relationships, the period in which you live and your natural surroundings.
Example
For example, a South Africa some cultures which have an Afrocentric world view
will consult a sangoma.
For cultural groups who have an Asiocentric or
Eurocentric world view the consulting of a sangoma may seem strange and
unfamiliar.
1.2.4 Perception
Your perception of people and objects is mainly culturally determined. In other
words how you experience the universe and the people living in it is formed by
15
the culture you identify with. Perception is an internal process by which you
select, evaluate and organize stimuli from your external environment. Your often
biased perception of people from other groups or cultures can lead to conflict and
ineffective intercultural communication.
Example
Perception can play a part in the organisation where you work. For example,
how many male secretaries or data typists work for the managing director of a
company or organisation? The chances are that there are not many. Is this due
to the perception that women are better suited to secretarial work?
1.2.5 Values and attitudes
Your values are formed after an extensive period of considering the value of
ideas, people, places and practices.
Values also look at qualities, such as
morality, usefulness and pleasure and are linked to the desired objectives of
social life.
Many of your opinions and attitudes towards people from other
cultural groups reflects your deep-rooted and fundamental value system.
Cultural values are based on fixed rules and are often normative, they inform
members of a specific culture about what is “moral”, immoral”, “true” and “false”.
Your cultural values point to which behaviours are important in your culture and
which must be avoided in your culture.
Example
For example, in a Western culture, you may learn the value that the individual is
more important than the group. Conversely in an African culture, you may learn
that there is more concern with ubuntu values, which focus on mutual
understanding and on the individual as well as the group.
1.2.6 Attitudes
While cultural values tend to be long-lasting , attitudes are somewhat more
flexible.
The culture of which you are a member teaches you its attitudinal
framework, in other words how to evaluate people, events or ideas from your
environment. Attitudes therefore provide you with a framework of how to react
when you meet people who are froma different cultural background. You should
16
take into account that different cultural goups attitudes towards the same stimuli
may differ considerably.
Example
For instance, the attitude of some communications students towards abortion
might be that it is a form of murder, or conversely others may feel that a woman
has the right to decide whether or not she wishes to have an abortion.
1.2.7 Prejudice
Prejudice refers tot eh emotional component or to your reactions to members of
other cultural groups. Prejudice includes the prejudging of other cultural groups
based on limited knowledge, minimal contact and ignorance. Prejudice can be
viewed as a rigid attitude based on mistaken perceptions and inflexible
generalizations.
Prejudice can be directed towards a group as a whole or
towards an individual as a member of that group. Prejudice towards groups that
differ from your own group as a universal aspect of human behaviour and is often
learnt during the socialization process.
Example
Part of your prejudice may be the issue of language. For instance if you are Zulu
speaking you may have a white friend who cannot speak Zulu or any other
African language – rather than being prejudiced you could assist him or her to
learn Zulu.
1.2.8. Stereotypes
Stereotypes refer to beliefs about people, or generalizations that people make
about others or pictures in your head tht you have of people from other cultural
groups. During intercultural communication you come into contact with people
who have unknown characteristics and who are different from you.
You
consequently develop general categories, according wot which you classify
people and thus attach stereotypes to certain groups. Stereotypes often have
negative consequences which can hamper positive reaction with a negatively
stereotyped group.
Example
17
For example, in South Africa you may stereotype all white people as racists,
which is certainly not the case when you meet and get to know them. Think for
instance of Bram Fischer the Afrikaans speaking advocate who was detained
and jailed by the former “apartheid” regime because he worked for the ANC.
1.2.9 Group identity
Group identity can be seen as the way in which an individual identifies with and is
accepted into a group that has shared norms, rules, meaning and symbols.
Group identity thus refers t a personal affiliation with people with whom you share
certain things, such as language, nonverbal communication and world view. T eh
type of group to which you belong can be involuntary or voluntary. Involuntary
identity groups are groups that you belong to but have no control over. For
example, men regardless of culture race or language are physically
distinguishable from women. On the other hand a cultural identity group is based
on cultural rather than biological differences. In some instances cultural identity
groups can be voluntary.
Example.
For example, if Xhosa speaking, Zulu speaking, Tswana speaking or Afrikaans
speaking South Africans become members of either the ANC or the IFP, they
thus identify with their chosen political party. In other words, although they may
belong to different cultural groups, their identification is therefore with the specific
party of their choice.
18
1.3 Uncertainty Reduction Theory
reduction uncertainty in behavior
1.3.1 History and Orientation
Uncertainty reduction theory (URT) was initially presented as a series of axioms
(universal truths which do not require proof and theorems (propositions assumed
to be true) which describe the relationships between uncertainty and several
communication factors. URT was developed to describe the interrelationships
between seven important factors in any dyadic exchange: verbal communication,
nonverbal expressiveness, information-seeking behavior, intimacy, reciprocity,
similarity, and liking. This theoretical perspective was originated by C.R. Berger
and Calabrese in 1975; they drew on the work of Heider (1952).
1.3.2 Core Assumptions and Statements
Core: Uncertainty is unpleasant and therefore motivational; people communicate
to reduce it. Uncertainty reduction follows a pattern of developmental stages
(entry, personal, exit). During the entry stage information about another’s sex,
age, economic or social status, and other demographic information is obtained.
Much of the interaction in this entry phase is controlled by communication rules
and norms. When communicators begin to share attitudes, beliefs, values, and
more personal data, the personal stage begins. During this phase, the
communicators feel less constrained by rules and norms and tend to
communicate more freely with each other. The third stage is the exit phase.
During this phase, the communicators decide on future interaction plans. They
may discuss or negotiate ways to allow the relationship to grow and continue.
However, any particular conversation may be terminated and the end of the entry
phase. This pattern is especially likely to occur during initial interaction, when
people first meet or when new topics are introduced later in a relationship.
19
Besides the stages in uncertainty reduction patterns makes Berger a distinction
between three basic ways people seek information about another person: (1)
Passive strategies - a person is being observed, either in situations where the
other person is likely to be self-monitoring* as in a classroom, or where the other
person is likely to act more naturally as in the stands at a football game. (2)
Active strategies - we ask others about the person we're interested in or try to set
up a situation where we can observe that person (e.g., taking the same class,
sitting a table away at dinner). Once the situation is set up we sometime observe
(a passive strategy) or talk with the person (an interactive strategy). (3)
Interactive strategies - we communicate directly with the person.
People seek to increase their ability to predict their partner’s and their own
behavior in situations. One other factor which reduces uncertainty between
communicators is the degree of similarity individuals perceive in each other (in
background, attitudes and appearance).
Statements: the axioms in URT follow the “If… then…” statements typical of the
law-governed approach. For example: “If uncertainty levels are high, the amount
of verbal communication between strangers will decrease.”
*Self-monitoring is a behavior where we watch and strategically manipulate how
we present ourselves to others.
1.3.3 Conceptual Model
20
Uncertainty Reduction Model
Source: Heath & Bryant (1999)
1.3.4.Summary
The basic assumptions :
1. there is anxiety due to inability to predict the outcome of a situation
2. a stranger is a member of an outgroup
3. the ïn ”group is problematic, for instance language and nonverbal
communication are different
4. there are stereotypes
5. adaptation is traumatic
6. This theory attempt to articulate the relationship between intercultural
encounters, culture shock and adaptive transformation.
7. intercultural communication may be interpreted as either negative or as a
growth experience
8. Patterns of encoding and decoding are different because of culture
differents.
9. culture is viewed as the collective life-patterns shared by people in
different groups.
10. There is a change in cognitive behaviour patterns
11. there is stress due to accommodation and adaptation
12. culture shock is part of the process of learning
13. there is tolerance of cultural differences
14. individualism triumphs over stereotypes.
1.4 Global culture
A world market for new goods, material and nonmaterial is developing very
rapidly. This market is not restricted to material goods only. There is also an
electronic highway in the nonmaterial world, an infrastructure that enables
individual consumer to watch films and television programmes, consult libraries,
21
go shopping whilst relaxing at home at any moment of the day. The telephone,
television and computer is the transport in this electronic highway. We don’t go to
the world but the world will come to us. Information will reach virtually all corners
of the world for both education and amusement. A world culture is in the making,
influenced by the West.
1.5 Culture of exclusion
Opportunities are there but who can grasp them? To what extent are people
likely to participate? The picture is very grim, numbers of the poor are on the
increase, while at the same time, a minority of the population with access to
knowledge and capital is becoming richer, in both the developed and third world
countries alike.
The poor are faced with tantalizing visions of wealth that are broadcasted all over
the world. But like mirages, they retreat when you approach them. Human
communication worldwide is commercialization and consumerism. Advertisement
manufacture needs: they exploit the desire individuals feel to define a distinctive
identity. They fuel rising expectations for poor people.
The poor are also excluded from cyberspace which was originally designed for
scientists, communication, this medium only reaches an educated audience.
Exclusion is not only an economic phenomenon, it has social and political
consequences as well. It also has a major cultural dimensions. “Thinking people
away”, people being objects rather than human beings. This leads to a culture of
disdain – blaming people for their fate, poverty, their foreignness rather than
blaming the system. Blame the system not the victims of the system itself.
The result is a culture of alienation people not belonging to a community, not
being taken care of. This may breed a culture of violence and oppression which
is one of the major dangers of this century.
22
1.6 Loss of culture
In this divided world the social fabric of many communities is being destroyed.
The main culprits are the differences in access to the global culture and the loss
of cultural values due to commercialization of the channels of information. When
people are displaced, production systems are dismantled, kinship groups are
scattered, long-established settlements are disorganized.
People’s lives are affected in very painful ways. Many jobs and assets are lost,
healthcare tends to deteriorate. Links between producers and their customers
are severed, and local labour markets are disrupted. Informal social networks are
dissolved. Traditional community and authority systems can lose their leaders,
Symbolic markers, such as ancestral shrines and graves are abandoned,
breaking links with the past and with peoples’ cultural identities.
Urbanization is destructive in the developing countries. People are drifting away
from their social moral and cultural moorings. In the midst of this flux, society is
failing to create new structures and rules to replace the old ones. The West has
been passing through a period of rising crime and family breakdown for many
decades, but the West has been able to absorb many of the stresses and strains
placed on its social fabric by creating sophisticated services, institutions,
counseling, advice centres and hotlines to help at least some of those in need.
In countries like India, urban society is going through such an accelerated stage
of transition that even sociologists have not quite mapped out the new
landscape, there is no provision at all for such strains. It is in this grey area
between the loss of the old and the absence of anything new that anger,
unchannelled and unfocused, is exploding with little to contain it.
Communities feel threatened by rapid societal changes with which they cannot
cope. They may disintegrate and dissolve into bigger entities or they may search
for and return to old values and traditions. The scope of interest narrows down to
the family, the clan or the tribe and an effort is made to preserve cultural
23
identities. Those who wish to do so deserve support and ensure that cultures
survive. The interaction between cultures should never become a one-way street,
in which Western norms and values are a predominant force.
1.6 Toward an open society
The biggest challenge that face today’s leaders is steering between the global
culture and traditional cultures at regional and local levels. If globalization does
not respect regional and local variations in the global pattern, it would be like a
body without a soul. The ultimate goal should be an open society, based on
individual freedom, in which different cultural communities can peacefully coexist.
A society in which, neighbours respect each other even if they do not belong to
the same “tribe”.
The best way is to strengthen the social fabric and remove fear. People should
give direction to their own lives, not excluded from society but being part of it.
Harvest crops in their little plot of land or earn a salary, or have access to credit
to create their own income. Education should be a valuable tool in increasing
mutual understanding, as well as literature, music and sport. Finally, human
rights should be respected, while conflicts cannot be prevented, they should be
managed and limited so that they do not escalate to violence
Culture is like a river which is a source of life where we bathe and drink its water.
The river is fed by little streams which provide fresh water, they should not be cut
off for then the river would become turbid and stagnant, without the river, the land
goes barren. If the river develops into a torrent or flood, it can be a devastating
force. It should then be canalized to save lives. We must steer cautiously and
slowly in the middle and be aware that culture, although not a panacea, should
always be mainstream.
24
Study unit 2
Globalisatin and interntional communication: an introduction
Overview:
In this study unit, we cite practical examples to illustrate the implications of
glovalisation and provide a borad definition. We also show that globalisation is a
complex process with two discernible dimenstions: one horizontal, the other
vertical. We go on to explain how the process of globalisation may be observed
in the economic, social, cultural and political domains. Then we discuss the
concept “international communication”and its role in globalisation. Finally we
demarcate the field of staudy of international communication.
Learning Outcomes
After completing this study unit you should be able to show how globalisation and
international communication

Affect your personal, social and work environment

Are changing the world we live in.
2. 1. Introduction
Scenario A: An academic is researching community life in Central African
villages. While doing fieldwork in a remote area she is invited to the home of a
local resident for an evenings entertainment. She is very excited at the prospect
of experience ing the traditional culture of this remote, isolated community. To
her disappointment they spend the evening watching a video of Basic Instinct- a
film which was not yet showing in London movie houses at that stage (
Giddens1999:1)
Scenario B: It is ten o’clock in the evening. At Berlins Tegel airport a friendly
voice informs the weary passengers that they can board their flight to Hamburg.
But the announcers voice is not coming from within the airport building, or
25
anwhere in the vicinity. The speaker is a woman sitting at a console in California.
After 18:00 Berlin, time, thanks to modern communication technologies, Tegel
announcements are made from California. The reasons are obvious:
announcers in California do not require overtime wages, for it is still daytime
there. Besides, indirect labour costs are cheaper in the USA than in Germany. (
Beck 1999:1)
Scenario C: A member of PeaceNet Swedens staff was sitting at a computer
terminal when an urgent message flashed on the screen; Soviet tanks are
advancing on Leningrad! The alarming news of the coup in Russia came from
journalists of the Northwest news Service, a tiny news agency in St Petersburg.
Unable to contact the West telephonically, they forwarded the report via local
computer lines to a computer noticeboard in Estonia which is linked to PeaceNet
Sweden, PeaceNet Sweden, instantly sent the message to Green-Net their sister
company in London from where the news was distributed to news networks
throughout the world ( Frederick 1993:2)
These anecdotes reflect something of our modern world. We are living in a
constantly transforming world and this affects every aspect of our lives. Whether
we like it or not, we are increasingly part of a global order which even the most
knowledgeable experts understand only partially. Nontheless nobody can
escape the consequences and implications ( Giddens 1999:1)
This is what is known as globalisation. The fact that the term has become a buzz
word all over the world reflects some of the processes and developments to
which it refers. Because the term “globalisation”has become so popular an is so
widely used there is a lot of confusion about its exact meaning and the processes
involved. Often peoples perception of globalisation depends on their profession,
field of study or interests. Thus business people or students of the economic
sciences will se it in exclusively economic or financial terms. A computer fundi
on the other hand will be thinking of the role of modern computer technology, and
26
a sociologist or professor of media studies of the impact of the mass media on
cultures and social relations around th world. In a way each of these views has
some truth, for globalisation is a complex, involved phenomenon which affects
different facts of life. On the other hand globalisation in any one field relates
closesly to globalisation in other fields and the term in fact refers to an integrated,
“global “process- one which affects society as a whole, involves all contemporary
economic, social, cultural and political phenomena, and whose manifestation isn
one domain meshes intricately with manifestations in other fields.
2.2. Globalisation
“Nothing will be done any more without the whole world meddling in it “( Paul
Valery quoted in Featherstone 1990:15)
The term “globalisation” generally refers to a rapidly evolving process entailing
the establishment of complex power and communication relations on a global
basis between societies, cultures, institutions and individuals. A hallmark of this
process is the transformation of temporal and spatial limitations, that is the
shrinking of distance as a result of a dramatic reduction in disparities of distancewhether personally or by way of messages, images or graphics. Hence
“globalisation” implies that the world is in effect becoming “smaller”and that
people are drawing closer to each other. This process has reached virtually
every corner of the world. Time and labour saving production techniques ( eg
robot technology) and information and communication technologies to bridge
temporal and spatial disparities have helped to spread modern ideas,
technologies, and organizations from European and North American centres to
the furthest corners of the earth.
The compression of temporal and spatial disparities has also led to keener
awareness of the world as a whole. Hence apart from the objective fact of
globalisation there is also a subjective dimension which relates to peoples
greater awareness that they are part of a global scene.
27
As mentioned in the introduction, globalisation is a complex, composite process.
In the first place one can distinguish between two dimensions: horizontal and
vertical. The horizontal dimension entails a progressive compression of temporal
and sptial disparities, culminating in the fact that the world is becoming one
place, a single system. The vertical dimension compreises two processes. The
first is a trnd towards homogeneity, snchronisation, integration , unity and
universalism. The other is a trend towards localization, heterogeneity,
differentiation, diversity and particularism. Although several analysts
acknowledge the existence of these apparently contradictory processes, little is
know about their interrelationship. Nonetheless, it is widely accepted that they
are intrinsically connected and like the two sides of a coin, actually represent two
manifestations of a single process ( Servaes, Lie & Terzis 2000:58)
For this reason, Braman and Van Staden (2000: 3) prefer to speak of
“globalisations”in the plural, indicating that it is a multiple process which can be
observed in various fields, is experienced differently in each field and manifests
itself in diverse- even contradictory ways. The pluriform nature of globalisation
becomes clearer if we look at how it manifests itself in different domains.
2.3 The economic domain
Some people consider economic globalisation to be the driving force behind the
entire globalisation process. Others believe that economic globalisation would
not have been possible without rapid developments in information and
communication technologies. Either way, economic globalisation is an important
and mammoth phenomenon. In this section we explore the history of economic
globalisation, the driving forces behind it and two of its main facets. We also deal
with the role of international organizations and trade blocs, the hazards and
challenges associated with it and criticism of economic globalisation theory.
2.3.1Definition and history of economic globalisation
28
Economic globalisation may be defined as a process through which economic
activities are increasingly conducted at an international level. Economic
globalisation is characterized by an increasingly liberal approach to international
trade in goods and services and international capital flow. This implies reducing
obstacles in the form of trade restrictions and , in some instances, lifting them
altogether.
Economic globalisation is creating an integrated, transborder market for all
commodities. This integration does ot mean that there is just one global market
but that national ecnomies and markets are increasingly interdependent. No
market or economy can function in complete isolation any more. Because of the
rapid development of information and communication technologies, geographical
boundaries and temporal disparities are no longer a factor in international trade
and finance: a transborder or virtual market has come into being. Commodities
are anything that can be exchanged, borrowed, bought or sold; they include
money, physical products and services and information. Hamelink (1994:110)
describes economic globalisation as the emergence of global consumers who
insist on global services and products supplied by global distributors.
2.3.2. Globalisation of financial markets
In the present- day borderless economy capital flow is to longer restrict by
geographical or temporal limitations. Increasingly money is circulating outside
the jurisdiction of national governments ( Hamelink 1994:108). One could call it a
virtual financial market. Rastogi (1997:48) identifies three driving forces behind
the globalisation of financial markets:

World – wide deregulation of trade and financial markets: Deregulation
means that countries are abolishing various regulations that restrict the
flow of both commodities and capital to and from other countries. In other
words, countries are “opening up” their economies making them more
accessible.
29

Progress in information and communication technologies: Transactions
on financial markets are based on information flow. Modern information
and communication technologies facilitate information flow at tremendous
velocities. Information on financial markets is available world wide 24
hours a day and when there are new developments it is updated instantly.

Diverse developments such as the establishment of free trade zones, the
fall of communism and the switch to fluctuating exchange rates, the aging
of the world population, the growth of a middle class in developing
countries, and the revamping of pension schemes all contribute to a
growing supply of and demand for capital. There are still some obstacles
which the transborder economy has to overcome, such as legislative,
accounting and fiscal differences between countries. In addition not all
countries are equally keen on deregulating their economies. Although
these obstacles may delay the globalisation of financial markets they
cannot prevent it.
ACTIVITY: 1
What are the driving forces behind economic globalisation?
2.3.3 Hazards and challenges attached to economic globalisation
A major hazard attached to the borderless economy is that if one country or
region experiences an economic crisis the effects can spread across the
world. An example is the recent economic and political crisis in Zimbabwe. It
not only crippled the Zimbabwean economy but had a highly adverse effect
on the South African economy. The rand weakened considerably against the
dollar and the British pound and investor confidence in Southern Africa
declined.
Howard (1998:50) mentions other dangers attached to economic globalisation :
30
Overproduction
One of the challenges presented by increasing international trade is to balance
demand and supply. More and more companies are focusing their production on
international markets but are concentrating on ly on supply. As a result global
supply is exceeding global demand. Ne example is the motor industry. By the
year 2000 the total supply of car manufacturers world-wide would have reached
79 million vehicles. Whereas the global demand would be for 57 million only.
Competition.
The greater openness of the borderless economy stimulates competition and the
economic hegemony of the USA and Europe is increasingly threatened by
emerging countries in Aia and South America
Labour
One of the ideas behind multinational corporations is to shift production to
counries where labour is cheap. In the process there is a large scale exploitation
and there is growing pressure on multinational corporations from various quarters
to improve working conditions in their overseas plants.
Global leadership
In the discussion of the driving forces behind economic globalisation we referred
tot eh dwindling influence of the nation-state. Despite the fact that the world
economy is dominated by a handful of giant multinational corporations, they do
not do so in an ethical framework. Most of them operate purely in their own
interests.
The Social Domain
In the past social relations and the concept of community were largely confined
to face to face communication and interaction between people in the same
geographical space. Such communication centred mainly on issues of local
importance and was facilitated by a common local culture. Examples of this kind
31
of interaction are encounters in a coffee bar, interaction in the village square,
shaking hands when signing a contract where all the parties attend in person.
Emergence of the “Global village”
Nowadays neither dialogue and interaction nor the community is confined to just
one geographical space. The compression of time and space awhich
accompanies globalisation is causing a restructuring of social relations as well, in
the sense that they are extended globally. This means that communication
relations are no longer restricted to a particular place but are dispersed globally
or spatially. In effect, we have all become part of a nonspatial, unrestricted
community. The existence of such a community unconfined by distance, national
borders or other physical obstacles is made possible by modern information and
communication technologies which maintains communication relations
irrespective of time and space.
Social globalisation implies that the communication scholar Marshall McLuhan
32
STUDY UNIT 3
What is Social Change?

Change that occurs from within a society

Members of a society are exposed to outside influence and new ideas;
gradual changes overtime in every society, since people increase their
ability to live a more satisfactory life through exploiting natural resources.
What does development refer to?

Social change that is mainly directed and caused from outside a
society;

Change that is planned by persons that intentionally seek to introduce
new ideas into a society to achieve predefined goals;

A break from tradition and disruption of existing social relationships;

Imposing new ideas, practices and technologies on a society from the
outside.
3. How societies change and develop
Western societies are highly developed when compared to the underdeveloped
Third World countries. It is important to know how societies change and develop
as this would be valuable for the development of the Third World. About 20 000
years ago, people lived in hunter-gatherer societies where people collected fruit
and vegetables that grew naturally and hunted animals for their survival.
Gradually societies began to develop and change. However the development
pace was not the same for example, in Europe societies advanced faster than in
Africa, Asia and the Latin America, where advancement was more slowly.
The European societies developed through four historical periods of change or
revolutions known as agrarian, commercial, industrial and information
revolutions.
33
3.1 Agrarian revolution
The early hunter-gatherer societies were nomadic and traveled in search for
food. Gradually, certain groups started to settle in fertile areas and started to
grow crops and tamed animals and began to depend on themselves rather than
on nature. This kind of development brought stability and improved the quality of
life.
More advanced methods and agricultural techniques helped to produce more
food and generated profits for these societies. Towns and villages were built and
a new economy based on exchange of goods developed. There was a great
increase in the value of land which became an important commodity, and society
was divided into groups of land owners and non-owners.
3.2 The commercial revolution
Voyages of discovery started between the 15 th and 16th centuries during which
explorers traveled to far off lands. They were searching for knowledge and the
development of science and technology. Around the 17 th and 18th centuries,
improvement in transport and communication lead to more innovation and
promoted new economic ideas.
Merchant and entrepreneurs started to expand trade and commerce on
international scale and powerful European nations began their conquest and
colonization of other parts of the world.
3.3 The industrial revolution
During the 18th century, great technological innovations began to transform
economic and social structures of society. Small-scale farming communities were
suddenly replaced by large-scale factory production systems. There was a
decline for labour in agriculture and an increase in demand for labour in the
34
factories and this resulted in rapid growth of towns and cities. This process is
called urbanistion.
New social groups or classes emerged:
3.3.1 The bourgeoisie – comprising rich capitalists and the professional middle
class, and the
3.3.2 The proletariat – the new industrial working class consisting of the
landless people who depended on earning wages.
The new industrial system made production possible on a large scale. Mass
production of goods at a low cost for large markets was on the increase. Mass
production improved the overall living conditions of many people.
3.4 The information revolution
During the 19th and 20th centuries the mass media, such as books, newspapers,
and magazines expanded. Telecommunication developed and radio and
television became popular. During the second part of the 20 th century new
developments in communication and information technology such as computers,
telecommunication satellites, and new forms of media began to transform the
social and economic structures of the highly-developed societies.
Information became the central commodity that was produced, sold and used in
the commercial and industrial sectors of the economy. Occupational roles began
to change as more people were employed in the information and communication
industries. The increase in the availability of information and communication
technologies began to transform the culture and politics of many countries.
Given such a history of social change, social scientists began to develop theories
to explain these social changes. Early theories of social change emerged during
the 19th century.
35
STUDY UNIT 4
4. Early theories of social change and development
Philosophers and social theorists took interest in the rapid social change that was
taking place during the 18th and 19th centuries and tried to understand and
explain what was happening. Their ideas about the causes of social change laid
foundation for the scientific study of human society that became known as social
sciences.
These social theorists assumed that all societies progressed from simple
systems to complex and developed systems. They suggested that human society
resembles a living organism such as plant or animal. They believed that societies
grow, progress and evolve over centuries of their existence basing this on the
biological evolution theory of Charles Darwin.
Species that best adapt to their environment survive and flourish, while those that
do not adjust become stagnant or die out. Extending this view to explain human
society, social theorists such as Marx, Durkheim, and Weber assumed that
European societies adjusted to their environment successfully and progressed,
while societies in other parts of the world remained in a more primitive stage of
development.
4.1 Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857)
He is considered as the founder of modern sociology, suggested that Western
societies evolved through a series of fixed transformations and that such
progress and evolution were the result of intellectual effort by the members of
those societies. That is, through the force of ideas, people adjusted to their
circumstances and improved their living conditions.
36
4.2 Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)
Explained why social change took place. He believed that societies evolved fom
simple, primitive or traditional societies to become more complex organized
modern societies.
4.3 Ferdinand Tonnies (1855 – 1936)
He suggested that modern society was transformed from a Gemeinschaft, which
is a traditional, close knit community, to a Gesellschaft – a modern society
characterized by the impersonal associations of its members.
4.4 Karl Marx (1818 – 1883)
He saw social change as an evolutionary process in which a society passed
through several stages, each stage marked by specific modes of production.
Marx identified distinctive stages in which the development of Western societies
from slavery, through feudalism, capitalism, socialism and finally resulting in
communism. Each stage was a reflection of the various economic relationships
or modes of production that existed within these societies.
For Marx, social change was founded upon, and determined by, the system of
material economic relations that exist in a society at a particular time in history
and the class conflict that these relationships bring into play. Marx was also one
of the first theorists to consider relations between Western and non-Western
societies and suggested that the spread of capitalism throughout the world would
result in economic growth and development of the stagnant non-Western
societies.
4.5 Max Weber (1864 – 1920)
He considered development as a transition from traditional to modern society,
which was caused by the rise of industry. Industrialisation brought new modern
forms of social organization based on rationalism and replaced traditional
customs and superstitions that hindered development. The development of the
37
modern capitalist manufacturing industry was based on the rational organization
of industrial production and business that established a steady profit and
accumulation of capital.
Rationalism was a particular cultural characteristic that developed in western
European societies. Rationalism was further encouraged by the religious
ideology of Calvinism, which urged its followers to commit themselves to hard
work, discipline and diligence, which were essential for success in business and
steady accumulation of capital through careful investment. As European societies
developed, an increasing number of their members began to act in ways that
were guided by the principles of rationality.
These ideas formed the foundation for an approach to development that is known
as modernization theory and is considered to be the dominant paradigm in the
study of development. A paradigm is a grand theory or a common view that is
shared by a group of theorists and directs research and practice in a particular
field of scientific inquiry.
Modernization theory
Modernization Theory is a theory of development which states that the
development can be achieved through following the processes of development
that were used by the currently developed countries. Scholars such as Walt
Rostow and A.F.K. Organski postulated stages of development applying to every
country. Samuel Huntington considered development to be a linear process
which every country must go through. Modernization Theory, in contrast to
Classical Liberalism, viewed the state as a central actor in modernizing
"backward" or "underdeveloped" societies. The Action theory of Talcott Parsons
defined qualities that distinguished "modern" and "traditional" societies.
Education was viewed as key to creating modern individuals. Technology also
played a key role in this development theory because it was believed that as
technology was introduced to lesser-developed countries it would spur economic
38
growth. Another author who has written on the process of modernization is David
S. Landes but not so much as a sheer theory but rather as a set of powerful
propositions of the direction of world history.[citation needed]
One key factor in Modernization Theory is the belief that development requires
the developed countries to aid developing countries to learn from their own
progress. In addition, it was believed that the lesser developed countries could
then grow faster than developed countries and catch up; and that it is possible for
equal development to be reached
Dependency theory
Main article: Dependency theory
While Modernization Theory understood development and underdevelopment as
a result from internal conditions that differ between economies, dependency
theory understood development and underdevelopment as relational. It saw the
world's nations as divided into a core of wealthy nations which dominate a
periphery of poor nations whose main function in the system is to provide cheap
labour and raw materials to the core. It held that the benefits of this system
accrue almost entirely to the rich nations, which become progressively richer and
more developed, while the poor nations, which continually have their surplusses
drained away to the core, do not advance. Developed in the 1950s, dependency
theory shared many points with Rosa Luxembourg's and V.I. Lenin's earlier,
Marxist, theories of imperialism; and dependency theory was embraced by many
Marxists and neo-Marxists. Dependency theorists held that for underdeveloped
nations to develop, they must break their ties with developed nations and pursue
internal growth. One type of policy crafted from this insight was Import
substitution industrialization. Modernisation theory failed to explain some critical
issues patterning the underdeveloped nations such as demographic trends,
difference in culture, geographical position, etc.
39
[edit] World systems theory
Main article: World systems theory
In response to some of the criticisms of Dependency Theory came World
Systems Theory, which the division of periphery and center was further divided
into a trimodal system consisting of the core, semi-periphery and periphery. In
this system, the semi-periphery lies between the core and periphery and is
exploited by the core and exploits the periphery. This division aims to explain the
industrialization within lesser developed countries. World Systems Theory was
initiated by Immanuel Wallerstein in, among other writings, World Systems
Analysis (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 2004), and focuses on inequality
as a separate entity from growth in development and examines change in the
global capitalist system. One distinguishing feature of this theory is a distrust for
the state and a view in which the state is seen as a group of elites and that
industrialization cannot be equated with development. Out of this theory stem
anti-systemic movements which attempt to reverse the terms of the system's
inequality through social democratic and labor movements.
40
STUDY UNIT 5
5. Development communication
According to Torado (1977:62):
development must be seen as multi-dimensional process
involving major changes in social structures, popular
attitudes, and national institutions as well as the
acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of
inequality and the eradication of absolute poverty.
In its essence, development must represent the entire gamut of change by which
the whole social system is tuned to the entire basic needs and desires of
individuals and social groups within that system. It should move away from
‘unsatisfactory’ condition to a condition of life regarded as materially and
spiritually ‘better’
Development aid is the assistance offered by the First World countries to improve
the standard of living in the Third World counties. Communication can often be
difficult because the participants in development come from different lifeworlds.
The purpose of development communication is to find ways to avoid the one way
transmission of (usually) patronizing messages from developers to recipients,
and to engage recipients in a two-way transactional process in which they
participate in the development projects that are planned.
5.1 Historical overview
At the end of the Second World War the United Nations (UN) was formed. One of
its major tasks was to encourage the richer First World countries to provide
development aid to the poorer, underdeveloped countries of the Third World.
Third World countries lack physical infrastructure, agriculture, economic
performance and the social and political spheres of life.
41
In 1949, the newly elected President of the USA, Harry S. Truman believed that
poor countries could become prosperous if they follow the example of the more
developed countries. He proposed the Point Four Programme on which the USA
was going to develop its foreign policy:
1. support for the UN
2. European recovery programme for rehabilitating the damages and
destruction of World War 11
3. providing military defense assistance to countries friendly to the Un
against the expansion of Communism
4. a new programme for providing development to the underdeveloped areas
of the world
This policy speech was the beginning of the UN, European and American
programmes for the development of the Third World. Development became a
new language in international politics to describe the relationship between the
West and the poor countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America which were then
called the developing countries.
These poor countries adopted development as a matter of national policy.In
1994, the newly elected South African government made the Reconstruction and
Development Programme (RDP) the central cornerstone of its policy. This policy
gained support from international development agencies, such as the UN,
European Union (EU) and the World Bank and funding for development became
available to solve the problems of the poor and disadvantaged communities in
South Africa.
5.2 Development and social change
Broadly defined, development is a particular type of social change that is aimed
at improving the material and human conditions of the people and societies of the
Third World by helping them to gain grater control over their environment.
42
5.2.1 Social change
- is change that happens from within a society such as when members of a
society with no outside influence create a new idea. Every human society
changes over time because people have the capacity for increasing their ability
to live a more satisfactory life through exploiting natural resources. It is an
evolutionary and continual adaptation of existing social conditions through a
progression of small steps and stages.
5.2.2 Development
is a type of social change that is directed or planned and caused from outside
the society by persons or agencies that internationally seek to introduce new
ideas in order to achieve predefined goals. It’s a break from tradition and
disruption of existing social conditions and their replacement with new ideas,
practices and technologies that are communicated and imposed on a society or a
community from outside.
5.2.3 Development communication
Development and social change depend on contact and communication between
the developed and underdeveloped societies. Development communication can
be defined as communication that promotes development, by promoting for
example, education and literacy, providing information to improve health care,
family planning, agricultural practices and better industrial production, and so on.
5.3 Development problems of the Third World
Underdeveloped countries of the Third World in Africa, Asia and Latin America
are different from each other, have different climates, different resource potential
and different cultures. However, they share many common problems. It is
important to know these problems because such knowledge is the first step in
43
finding solutions. In this sense development t can be considered as a process for
finding solutions for the problems of the Third World.
Problems of the Third World are based on the following: poverty, population
growth, health, literacy and education, inequality, economics and inadequate
knowledge, information and communication.
5.3.1 Poverty problem
 20% of the world’s population lives in poverty with no food, shelter,
clothing, medical care and education facilities
 poverty is measured in terms of economic indicators: “per capita
income” which means “per head” or “per person”, per capita
Gross National Product (GNP), and per capita Gross Domestic
Product (GDP)
 GNP is calculated by adding the value of economic output
resulting from the use of resources such as labour, land and
capital owned by members of society
 The GNP is calculated by dividing the total GNP by the total
number of people in the country
 The GDP is calculated by adding together all economic activities
taking place within the country. The GDP pr capita is calculated
by dividing the value of GDP by the total number of the
population.
 The GNP and GDP provide an indication of the average income of
each member of the population for example in many countries in
Africa it is R8 500 ($1 400) while in developed countries it is
R120 000 ($20 000) per annum.
5.3.2 Population problem

High birth rate and fast population growth, high number of inhabitants

Decrease per capita GNP or GDP because of division of resources
44

Family planning programmes aim at reducing the birth rate
5.3.3 Health problem

Well-being of a society is measured by the physical state of its people

In underdeveloped countries people suffer from ill health as a result of
malnutrition caused by poverty

Shortage of health care facilities such as clinics and hospitals including
doctors, nurses and medicines

Lack of sanitation and the availability of clean fresh drinking water
increase the high infant mortality (children who die during the firat year of
their life) and maternal mortality (mothers who die during pregnancy or
after giving birth)
5.3.4 Literacy and education problems

Poor education systems and large number of illiterate people

Shortage of media, such as books, newspapers and magazines and lack
of technology for producing printed material
5.3.5 Inequality problem

Inequality between rich and poor people

Inequality between rural and urban dwellers

Unequally distribution of resources

Gender inequality

Other inequalities like those based in age and differences in etnic
affiliation and of social class membership
5.3.6 Economic problem

Lack of natural resources

No developed industrial sectors

External debt to international institutions due to heavy borrowing
45

Developed countries cutting back support for development
5.3.7 Knowledge, information and communication problem

Less knowledge which makes people different from rich countries

New technologies such as computers and computer networks, mobile
telephones receivers and telecommunication systems have the potential
to stimulate development
46
STUDY UNIT 6
6. The dominant paradigm in development
In the 50s and 60s underdevelopment in the Third World was blamed on
traditionalism with its cultural, social and political structures that were seen as
obstacles to the growth of efficient economic development and modernization.
Modernisation was seen as forward-looking, innovative and free from
superstition.
Definitions of development emphasized the modernization, or westernization of
underdeveloped communities by replacing traditional ways of life with more
complex and technological advanced ways of life. This is the dominant
paradigm.
It
was
thought
that
if
underdeveloped
societies
became
industrialized and urbanized, developed a western-style democratic politics
and government, modernization would follow. Traditional society members were
seen as having an emotional, superstitious and fatalistic view of the world while
modern society is forward-looking, innovative and free from superstition.
6.1 Approaches to development communication
In the dominant paradigm the two main approaches to development
communication were diffusion of innovation approach and the mass media
and modernization approach.
Diffusion is the process by which new ideas (innovation) are spread (diffused)
among members of a community for example the purification of drinking water to
prevent disease. The mass media and modernization approach emphasized the
all powerful role of the mass media in assisting the process of modernization.
Mass media would transmit ideas from First World to Third World and from urban
47
centres to rural areas. It was assumed that mass media have powerful effects
over their recipients who accept their messages uncritically. By introducing mass
media into the Third World countries, new ides to encourage modernization
would easily be accepted.
Criticism of the dominant paradigm was directed at the ignorance of the Third
World realities. Researchers had inadequate knowledge of the living conditions
and cultural background of the recipients. Insufficient attention was not paid to
factors such as inavailability of mass media in rural areas, selective exposure,
people might to choose to listen to music rather than educational programmes,
accessibility of the message in terms of language use and production techniques.
Communication was top-down – one way transmission of messages from
specialist communicators to passive recipients. People were not consulted about
their needs and priorities.
In the 70s, a new group of theorists, mainly from South America suggested an
alternative paradigm – that the problems of the Third World did not arise from
within the society but were caused by the domination of the Third World countries
by Western capitalist ideology. That the Western countries used communication
and mass media imperialism to create underdevelopment in the Third World and
thereby increase their dependency on the West, the dependency theory.
Dependency theorists proposed that governments in the Third World promote
their own form of development independently.
Many Third World governments adopted the approach known as development
journalism, that Third World governments should establish their own mass
communication systems as a major development resource for national
development. Mass media should give priority to news and information about
national, cultural and language issues and encourage national autonomy.
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Criticism of the alternative paradigm was that while it provided new ways of
thinking
about
development,
it
failed
to
address
internal
causes
of
underdevelopment in Third World countries, like the modernization paradigm, it
overemphasized the role that the mass media could play in development.
In the 1980s, there was a move towards a more equitable approach to
development and communication. The new paradigm emphasizes participation of
recipients in development programmes and communication as a two-way
process between communicators and recipients. Participation in significant
activities of the community is seen by the new paradigm as a basic human right
and as means of self actualization.
Participation implies a higher level of public or community involvement in
communication systems. It includes the involvement of the public/community in
the production process and also in the management and planning of
communication systems. It may be no more than representation and consultation
of the public in decision making. On the other hand, self-management is the most
advanced form of participation. Decision making within communication
enterprises and is also fully involved in the formulation of communication policies
and plans.
Communication is used primarily as an instrument of conscientisation – the
transfer of knowledge to members of the community, especially an awareness of
the conditions of their existence. Through discussion, the needs of the
community are identified, a plan of action formulated, and the community then
implements the plan. The emphasis is on self-development and cultural growth
rather than on purely material assistance.
In the new paradigm, the mass media are still seen as important carriers of
development messages, but the mass media alone are not sufficient. Culture is
seen as important in the development process. They look at indigenous channels
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of communication known as folk media or “people’s communication”. These
include folk theatre, puppet shows, oratory, folk dances, ballads and mime.
Community is familiar with them, they can discuss the message conveyed in a
puppet show or dance routine with communicators and among themselves
The sharing of knowledge between communicators and recipients gave rise to
the idea of development support communication (DSC). While this new
approach appears to offer the ‘best’ approach to development in that it is peoplecentred, it has not entirely replaced the other two paradigm which still influence
the approach to development.
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REFERENCES
Faure, C. Parry, L. & S. Sonderling (2000). Intercultural, Development and Health
Communication. Pretoria: UNISA.
Servaes, J. (2002). Communication for development: one world, multiple
cultures. Cresskill: Hampton Press, Inc.
Steiberg, S. (2007). An introduction to communication studies. Cape Town: Juta.
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