Final Exam
Supplemental Instruction
Iowa State University
Leader:
Course:
Instructor:
Date:
Kristina
AnS 214
Keating
5/6/2014
Digestive System
1. The digestive system is made up of two groups of organs the ______________________
which includes the esophagus and stomach and the _________________ digestive organs
which includes the teeth and tongue. The six processes involved in digestion are
______________, _______________, __________________, _____________________,
______________, and __________________. Saliva contains ___________________ for
starch digestion and ______________________ which is activated by stomach acid.
Salivation can be triggered by _____________, _____________, and _____________ of
food during the ________________ phase. This stage also includes ___________
secretions and _____________. After food has been broken down and moistened in the
mouth it moves into the ________________ in the form of a bolus. The bolus is then
pushed along by contractions called ________________. It then reaches the stomach
where chemical digestion of ___________ and ______________ begins. When food
enters the stomach a _______________________ response occurs where the stomach
resists stretch, but then relaxes to allow space for the food. In the gastric pits are
_____________ cells that produce HCl and intrinsic factor and ______________ cells
that secrete inactive pepsinogen. HCl activates _____________________ and
________________ which begin digestion of proteins and fats. __________________
cells control the mixing of food and chemicals by regulating the frequency of peristaltic
waves. This makes up the _______________ phase of digestion. The final intestinal
phase begins when food moves into the _____________________ which is made up of
three parts the duodenum, _______________, and ________________. The __________
secretes bile which is then stored in the ________________. Bile is then injected into the
small intestine where ________________ function to emulsify and absorb fats. The
pancreas functions in protein digestions by secreting _______________, _____________,
and ____________________ into the small intestine. The small intestine has structural
modifications such as ______________, ______________, and _______________ that
increase its ability to absorb nutrients. Food is moved along through the process of
intestinal _______________. This process includes ____________________ and
peristaltic ____________. Contents of the small intestine are moved along towards the
____________________. The presence of food in the ________________ causes the
large intestine to undergo mass movements in the __________________________. This
forces feces into the ______________. ________________ control allows the external
anal sphincter to relax, while a _________________________ is responsible for the
relaxation of the internal anal sphincter. This process is called _________________.
Nutrient Digestion
2. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the _________________. However, it is halted in the
stomach due to the inactivation of ______________________ by acid. ______________
amylase resumes carbohydrate digestion in the small intestine. Other ________________
enzymes act on other sugars such as fructose. Protein digestion begins in the
_____________ due to the action of ___________________ (inactive). This inactive
form is activated by __________. In the small intestine the enzymes _______________,
Supplemental Instruction
1060 Hixson-Lied Student Success Center  294-6624  www.si.iastate.edu
_____________________, and ______________________ continue protein digestion.
Fat digestion takes place in the _______________________. Bile salts ______________
fat globules. Pancreatic _______________ then breaks down the fat into free
_______________________ and monoglycerides. They combine with bile salts to form
_______________ which ferry the components to the intestinal mucosa. The fatty acids
and monoglycerides leave the ______________ and enter epithelial cells. They then form
__________________. These are extruded by ___________________ and enter
______________. Finally they are carried away by _____________.
Respiratory System
3. The upper respiratory system which is also the ___________________ zone has three
functions: ___________, ______________, and ______________ inhaled air. Cells in
this zone secrete _______________ to trap any foreign particles. If a particle makes it
past this area it will come into contact with the _______________ which will result in a
coughing reflex to expel it. The final part of the respiratory system, which resides in the
respiratory zone, is the ________________. This is where ______________________
occurs. __________________ is the amount of air moving in and out during normal
respiration. ____________________ is the maximum amount of air inspired after
maximal expiration. Dead space is the space in the ___________________ where air
remains and cannot undergo gas exchange. _____________ dead space also includes
______________ dead space. Alveolar ventilation rate is _______________ X
___________________________. The respiratory system has three characteristics:
________________ which is the ability to stretch, ________________ which is the
tendency to return to original size and shape, and ______________________ which is the
attraction between like molecules. Due to Boyle’s Law (___________________) air can
enter the lungs. Inspiration is an ________________ process, but expiration is a
_______________ process. The pressure of each gas on the lungs is dependent upon is
proportion in the total mixture. This is _______________ Law. ________________ Law
says that the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid depends on the solubility,
_______________, and ____________________ of the gas. Oxygen is transported in the
blood by ______________________ which can load ____ oxygen molecules at a time.
Carbon dioxide is primarily transported as _________________.
4. Diagram the production of HCl.
5. Diagram an alveolus.
6. Describe what is happening in the diagram below.
7. Review the table of digestive substances.
Inactive Hormone (if
applicable)
Trypsinogen
Activating
Factor
Enterokinas
e, trypsin
Active Substance
Function
Location
Trypsin
Brush border
Chymotrypsinogen
Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
Procarboxypeptidase
Trypsin
Carboxypeptidase
None
Acid and fat
in small
intestine
CCK
None
Acid and fat
in small
intestine
Secretin
None
Increase in
stomach pH
Gastrin
None
Food
Salivary Amylase
None
Carbohydrat
es
Pancreatic
Amylase
Protein
digestion,
activation
of other
hormones
Protein
digestion
Protein
digestion at
carboxyl
end
Inhibit
gastric
secretion
and
motility
Inhibit
gastric
secretion
and
motility
Increase
stomach
secretions
Starch
digestion
Starch
digestion
Pepsinogen
HCl
Pepsin
None
Proteins
Aminopeptidase
Chief cells/
stomach
Brush border
None
Proteins
Dipeptidase
None
RNA
RNase
None
DNA
DNase
None
Fat in
duodenum
High blood
sugar
Pancreatic Lipase
Protein
digestion
Protein
digestion at
amine end
Break up
dipeptides
Degrade
RNA
Degrade
DNA
Fat
digestion
Lower
blood sugar
Low blood
sugar
Glucagon
None
None
Insulin
Brush border
Brush border
Duodenum
Duodenum
G cells
Mouth
Pancreas
Brush border
Pancreas
Pancreas
Pancreas
Pancreas
Raise
Pancreas
blood sugar
None
Alcohol
None
Fat in
duodenum
None
Food
ACh
None
Food
Histamine
None
Food
HCl
None
HCl
Lingual Lipase
None
Serotonin
None
Acid and fat
in
duodenum
Acid and fat
in
duodenum
Bacteria
None
Bacteria
Lysozyme
None
Food
Mucus
None
Acid and fat
in small
intestine
Gastric Inhibitory
Peptide
None
Alcohol
Dehydrogenase
Bile
Somatostatin
Ig A
Alcohol
digestion
Fat
emulsificati
on
Increase
stomach
secretions
Increase
stomach
secretions
Activate
pepsin,
break up
cells walls,
kill
bacteria
Digest fats
Inhibit
gastric
secretion
Inhibit
gastric
secretion
Inhibit
bacterial
growth
Kill
bacteria
Lubrication
for
swallowing
Suppress
gastric
secretion
and
motility
Stomach
Liver/
gallbladder
Stomach
Enteroendocrine
cells
Parietal cells/
stomach
Mouth, active in
stomach
Stomach
Stomach
Mouth
Mouth
Mouth
Duodenum
Nervous System
1. The nervous systems gather information from _______________________, then
interprets the information during ___________________, and finally produces a response
called ____________________. The central nervous system is made up of the _________
and __________________. The peripheral nervous system is made up of a ___________
division and a ______________ division that divides farther into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems. There are three types of neurons ____________, __________,
and __________________. They have three properties that allow them to conduct signals
including secretory activity, ________________, and _________________. The bloodbrain barrier of formed by _________________. An action potential is initially generated
at the ______________________. This initial signal will open ________________
channels and is an ___________________ response. _________________ helps to speed
up an action potential. In the central nervous system __________________ form this
wrapping, in the peripheral nervous system _____________________ form this
wrapping. The signal will travel in a process called __________________________
“jumping” from one node of Ranvier to the next. This phenomenon is due to sodium
being _______________ at higher rates than if there was no covering on the neuron.
When the action potential arrives at the axon terminal of the ____________________
neuron it opens voltage-gated ______________ channels. Synaptogonium proteins then
bind ________ and promote fusion of synaptic _____________ with the axon membrane.
________________ of neurotransmitters can then take place. If there is ACh in the
synapse ____________________________ can degrade it.
Muscles
2. The five characteristics of muscle are _______________, _______________,
_______________, ______________, and __________________. Skeletal muscle is
_______________ and ________________. Muscle grows primarily by hyperplasia
_________________. This is an increase in muscle cell __________. After birth muscle
growth is primarily __________________ or an increase in muscle cell size. This growth
is regulated by ________________ which has negative feedback on muscle mass. This
protein can be further regulated by __________________ which will inhibit it and allow
muscle growth. ________________ is a contractile protein that is a dimer that looks like
two golf clubs. ________________ is another contractile protein that looks like a pearl
necklace. Actin is made up of two parts ______________ and ________________ actin.
There are also two regulatory proteins in muscle contraction. They are _______________
and _________________. The protein that binds to actin (________________) blocks the
________________. The other regulatory protein(_____________) binds ___________
which will allow it to move tropomyosin away from the active site and
_________________ can form. Troponin is made up of three subunits ______, ______,
and _______. The process of an action potential signaling the myofilaments to slide is
called ___________________________. Cross-bridges will form and a muscle will
____________. For relaxation to take place ______________________ must degrade
ACh from receptors. Calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum by
__________________.
Cardiovascular
3. Blood enters the heart through the vena cava into the right atrium. It continues through
the _____________________________________ into the right ventricle. This valve is
prevents ________________________ into the right atrium. The valve is connected to
____________________ and ___________________________. These muscles contract
to pull the valve into a closed position. From the right ventricle, blood moves into the
pulmonary ______________ via the ______________________________. At this point
the blood is oxygen ______________. It then moves onto the lungs where it will become
oxygen _________ before returning to the heart via the _________________________.
Blood enters the heart’s left atrium and moves through the left atrioventricular valve,
which is also called the ____________ or ____________ valve, before entering the left
ventricle. Finally blood will leave the heart via the _________________ after passing
over the aortic semilunar valve. Unlike the atrioventricular valves, the semilunar valves
do not possess ________________________. They rely on _________________ to keep
the valves closed and prevent backflow into the __________________. An
electrocardiogram is a diagram of the heart’s conduction cycle. The P wave shows
____________________________________. The ________________________ shows
ventral depolarization. The T wave shows ____________________________. A heart
beat originates with the depolarization of __________________________ cells at the
___________________________ also called the _______________________. The electrical
signal is transmitted to the ____________________________ which connects the
____________________ and ________________________. Without input from the SA node
the heart would beat at around __________________. The electrical signal continues through
the AV bundle also called the _______________________________ into the left and right
___________________ located in the septum. This carries the impulse towards the
_____________ of the heart. Finally, the signal is conducted into
_________________________________ which will depolarize the _________________
fibers in the ventricles. Without input from the SA or AV nodes these cells would depolarize
at about ______________________. __________________. The SA node has the fastest
depolarization of the cell in the heart making it the heart’s _______________________.
4. Illustrate a neuron.
5. Diagram an action potential. Include sodium and potassium permeability curves and
refractory periods.
6. Draw and label a sarcomere.
7. Sketch the triad and movement of calcium during muscle cell contraction.
8. Diagram the cross-bridge cycle.
9. Label the waves and describe what is happening.
Immune System
1. The immune system has two lines of the defense the
and
defense systems. In the first line of defense
and
are the first barriers to foreign invaders. The second line of
defense includes antimicrobial proteins,
,
, and
. One of the most
important defenses is the
response. Its four signs include
,
,
, and
. One internal defense of the innate immune system is
phagocytosis. First the phagocyte must be mobilized; this occurs in four steps
,
,
,
and
. Phagocytosis begins when a
adheres to a
. The phagocyte then forms a pseudopod that
engulfs the particle and forms a
. This will fuse with a
forming a phagolysosome. The particles in the phagolysosome
will be
. Finally, they will undergo
to
remove the waste. The second line of defense is the adaptive immune system which has
, is
, and is
. The adaptive
response is executed through the action of
marrow and
that mature in bone
that mature in the thymus. They must gain
and
before they are
ready to fight infections. One branch of the adaptive immune system is the
response which leads to the production of antibodies.
Antibodies combine with antigens to form an
. They
can also defend against antigens by four processes
,
,
, and
. When stimulated a B cell will form
with the same antigen-specific receptors. Most of these cells will become
which will mark antigens for destruction. The rest of the cells
will become
. These provide a way for the body to react
if it encounters the same antigen in the future. Active humoral
immunity can come from an
or
humoral immunity can come from
. Passive
or
.
A second branch of the adaptive immune system is the
T helper cells come from
cells and cytotoxic T cells come from
cells. Helper cells are activated by
cells stimulate
response.
. Helper
to divide faster to create more antibodies, activate
, and
other immune cells.
MHC proteins signal a foreign antigen, while
MHC proteins self.
Renal System
1. Kidneys function as the major
organ. They regulate blood pH,
volume, and composition. The kidney can regulate blood glucose levels through
. There are three layers of protective tissue around the
kidneys. The
which anchors the kidney in place, the
which acts as a cushion, and the
which provides protection from infection. The structural unit of the kidney is the
. If this structure is contained in the cortex it is called a
. If it extends far into the medulla it is called a
. Nephrons are made up of a
, which is the glomerulus and its capsule, and a
. The renal
tubule contains the visceral layer and a
. This includes foot
processes known as
and filtration
continues to include the
,
. The renal tubule
,
, and
. The formation of urine occurs in three steps. In the first step,
, blood is filtered through the filtration membrane.
Glomerular
cells degrade large molecules that make it through the
filter. The rate of filtration can be controlled via two intrinsic mechanisms. In the
mechanism glomerular filtration rate is controlled by constriction or
dilation of afferent arterioles. In the
mechanism GFR is
controlled by macula dense cells releasing a
compound in
response to high levels of salt. Under extreme stress, extrinsic controls take over and the
sympathetic nervous system releases
of
. This triggers the release
to activate angiotensinogen to angiotensin I and ultimately to
angiotensin II. The second step of urine formation is
.
More reabsorption takes place in the
. In the DCT and collecting ducts
reabsorption is hormonally controlled. Parathyroid hormone controls the absorption of
, antidiuretic hormone controls
and anti natriuretic hormone control
formation is
absorption, and aldosterone
reabsorption. The final step in urine
.
2. Name and describe the four steps for phagocyte mobilization
(how does the phagocyte reach the pathogen in the first
place?):
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
3. Using the diagram to the right, list the steps of phagocytosis:
Step 1:
1
2
Step 2:
Step 3:
3
Step 4:
4
4. What occurs after step 4 represented in the
diagram?
Endocrine System
1. Endocrine glands are ________________. Their responses tend to act much
____________ than those of the nervous system. The endocrine system acts through
chemical messengers in the blood or lymph called _________________. Their effects can
take place in the cell where they are produced called a(n) _________________ effect or
they can have effects on cells other than the one that secreted them called a(n)
_________________ effect. There are two classes of hormones
______________________ and ________________________. Steroid hormones and TH
circulate in the blood bound to ___________________ while all other hormones circulate
freely. Concentration in the blood is affected by the rate of ____________ and speed of
____________. The amount of time it takes for half a hormone to be removed from the
blood is called the _____________________. Hormones can be released in response to
various stimuli. One type of stimuli called _______________ stimuli is classified by
changing levels of ions and nutrients in the blood. Ca+2 is regulated in this way. If Ca+2
levels get too high ______________ deposit calcium into the bone matrix. However, if
Ca+2 levels are too low ________________ degrade the bone matrix to release calcium
into the blood. An extremely low level of blood calcium in a lactating cow can cause
_________________________. A second type of stimuli called ____________________
stimuli is characterized by nerve fibers stimulating hormone release. When one hormone
triggers the release of another hormone this is called a ________________ stimulus. The
posterior pituitary stores the two hypothalamic hormones ______ and _______________.
The anterior pituitary secretes the six hormones _______, _______, ________,
_________, ________, and ________. All of these are classified as _______________.
They are secreted by cells in the anterior pituitary called ________________,
_________________, __________________, ___________________, and
_________________. The hormone that can be regulated indirectly by IGFs is also
regulated by _______ and _______. ___________ stimulates the production of gonadal
hormones, while ________ stimulates gamete production. Both of these hormones are
regulated by __________. Prolactin is regulated by _____________ also called prolactininhibiting hormone. _____________ stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth.
TSH regulates the normal function of the ______________ gland. This gland requires
iodine or else it will swell causing a ____________. It produces two hormones _______
which is more active than _________. In the pancreas alpha cells secrete ____________
and beta cells secrete ______________. Glucagon can cause the breakdown of
____________ to glucose called ________________________. It can also cause the
synthesis of glucose called ________________________. Hypoactivity or
hypersecreteion of ________________ can cause diabetes mellitus. Three symptoms of
diabetes are ______________, _________________, and___________________. When
one hormone cannot exert its effects without another hormone present that is called
_______________________. _______________ is when more than one hormone
produces the same effect on a target cell. Finally, when one hormone _______________
another, it is called an antagonist. The effectiveness of a hormone depends on
_________________________, ______________________, and
____________________________________.
Reproductive System Male
1. In the male reproductive system the _____________ produce sperm. They are contained
inside a sac of skin called the _______________. It can maintain a temperature lower
than core body temperature through two mechanisms the __________________ and
____________________. Another mechanism for temperature regulation is a
countercurrent heat exchanger called the ___________________________. The three
accessory sex glands in the male are the ___________________________,
_______________________, and _____________________. The combination of sperm
and accessory sex gland fluid is ______________. It contains ____________________
from the seminal vesicles to help sperm reach the egg. Sertoli cells form the blood-testisbarrier, produce ______________, ________________, and ____________________,
and absorb cast off from developing spermatozoa. ______________ cells produce
androgens stimulated by the effect of the hormone ________. Due to androgen-binding
protein from the sustenacular cells, there is an increase in _________________ in the
testes. This leads to an increase in ________________________. Sperm production is
made up of two stages ___________________ and _________________. Spermatogonia
at the basement membrane are ________________. They undergo mitosis to form a Type
A daughter cell that ________________ the basement membrane and a Type B daughter
cell that ________________ into a sperm cell. However, this cell is not ______________
and is transcriptionally _____________. It must undergo ___________________ to
become a mature sperm cell.
2.
Reproductive System Female
2. In the female reproductive system an oocyte begins with oogenesis in the
_______________. After maturing into a ________________________, the oocyte will
be ___________________. From here it moves into the portion of the uterine tube called
the ____________________. The oocyte then moves into the _________________ where
fertilization can occur and finally into the _______________. From the uterine tube it
moves into the __________________. If fertilization has occurred it will implant into the
__________________ and continue developing. There are two distinct phases seen in the
ovary. The phase before ovulation is the ___________ phase which includes the growth
of the follicles. The second phase is the _________________ phase and includes activity
of the CL. At the same time there are three distinct phases in the uterus. The first, which
would occur if a female were not pregnant, is the _______________ phase. During this
phase the _______________________ is shed or resorbed. The next phase is the
____________________ phase in which _______________ initiates the development of
a new functional layer and increases receptors of ___________________in the
endometrium. The last phase is the _______________ phase. During this phase the
_______________ continues to develop in preparation for an embryo. Maternal
recognition of pregnancy is caused by ____________________ secreted from the
blastocyte. During development in utero _________________ ducts form into the female
reproductive tract due to a lack of ____________________. If androgens are present the
__________________ ducts form into the male reproductive tract. During the
_________________ phase of the ovarian cycle follicles develop from the ____________
follicle to a __________________. First, primordial follicles become ________________
follicles. During this stage _____________ cells become cuboidal. The follicle then
becomes a ________________ follicle. It now has a layer of flat __________________
cells that produce ________________. The follicle also develops a
____________________ to help protect the egg. Finally, the follicle becomes a
__________________ follicle. It contains a large antrum filled with ________________.
At this stage the oocyte is a ______________ oocyte. It then undergoes ____________ to
become a secondary oocyte which is ready to ___________________.
Estrous Cycle
3. The first stage of the estrous cycle is _______________ or standing heat. During this
stage __________________ levels are high which cause an ______ surge. This leads to
___________________ and formation of a CL. The next stage is __________________.
Estrogen levels start to decline, while ___________________ levels are rising. If
fertilization has occurred the embryo will move towards the ______________. During
____________________ progesterone levels are very high. If pregnant the ______ will
remain and produce progesterone. If not pregnant it will regress due to the action of
_______________. Finally, the female goes into ___________________ and
progesterone levels decrease. If the female stops cycling she is in
______________________.
4. Trace the events involved in the synthesis, release and hormonal action of T3 and T4.
Include a list of the effects of thyroid hormone on the body.
5. Complete the table.
Hormone
GH
Produced
Stored
Target organ
Function
TSH
FSH
LH
ACTH
PRL
Oxytocin
TH
Glucagon
Insulin
6. Complete the table.
Substance
Produced in the. . .
Anterior Pituitary
Target cells
Function(s)
Increase LH
receptors
LH
ABP
Spermatogenesis,
SSC, libido, RBC
production, etc.
Seminal vesicles
Uterus, cervical
mucus