Unit IV
• 1. The motives of competition and profit often prompt people
and groups to expand into new areas of opportunity.
• 2. Changes in technology and exchange during the 18th and
19th centuries led to the social and economic changes around
the world that are still relevant today.
• 3. Technology, transportation and communication enabled
European nations to become the dominant world powers in the
19th century.
• 4. Centers of global economic and political power shift over
time.
• 5. Technology and industrial advancement can alter existing
social and economic systems.
•
•
•
•
1. How can nationalism be a unifying and a divisive force?
2. How does a state gain or lose power over others?
3. How should resources and wealth be distributed?
4. Why do political revolutions occur?
That you are at home engaged in one of your favorite activities;
playing a game, listening to music, or reading. So far the day is as
any other. Then all of the sudden a group of individuals arrive at
your front door demanding that you stop what ever you are doing.
These individuals tell you that your way of life is wrong. They inform
you however that they have come to your house to correct your way
of life. They say it is their responsibility to change your way of
living for the better. You find out that this has happened not only to
you but your neighbors as well. Over time your way of life does
change. These individuals, who you do not even know, have
changed your government, religion, and other cultural practices,
and remember these individuals told you this was for your own
good. What is your reaction?
• Motives Driving Imperialism
1. Nationalism
• Countries viewed expanding their empire as a measure of
national greatness
• “All great nations in their fullness of their strength have desired
to set their mark upon barbarian lands”
2. Economic Competition
• Need natural resources to fuel industrialized economies
3. Exploration
4. Ideology• European Racism
• Idea that the white race was superior to others
• Social Darwinism those that were fittest for survival enjoyed
wealth and successes and were considered superior to others
• Motives Driving Imperialism
• Missionary Impulse
• Desire to Christianize
people
• Believed European rule
was the best way to end
evil practices (i.e. slave
trade)
5. Geopolitics
• An interest in land for strategic location or product
• Often leads to conflict
• European nations interested in specific resources in
specific places but not always interested in taking over
entire country
• Examples: canals, oil, water access
•The desire for national
prestige
•The desire for markets for
industrial goods
•The need for raw materials
External Factors
- Maxim gun
- Railroads/Steamships
- Cure for malaria
Internal Factors
- Variety of cultures and
languages
- Low level of technology
- Ethnic strife
Forms of Imperialism
Characteristics
Example
Colony
A country of region governed
internally by a foreign power
Somaliland in East Africa was
a French colony
Protectorate
A country or territory with its
own internal government but
under the control of an
outside power
Britain established a
protectorate over the Niger
River delta
Sphere of Influence
An area in which an outside
power claims exclusive
investment of trading
privileges
Liberia was under the sphere
of influence of the United
States
Economic Imperialism
Independent but less
developed nations controlled
by private business interests
rather than by other
governments
The Dole Fruit company
controlled pineapple trade in
Hawaii
Indirect Control
Direct Control
Local government officials were used
Limited self-rule
Goal: to develop future leaders
Government institutions are based on
European styles but many have local
rules
Foreign officials brought in to rule
No self-rule
Goal: assimilation
Government institutions are based only
on European styles
Examples:
British colonies such as Nigeria, India,
Burma
U.S. colonies on Pacific Islands
Examples:
French colonies such as Somaliland,
Vietnam
German colonies such as Tanganyika
Portuguese colonies such as Angola
• ….Everybody wants a piece of the cake….
• Imperialism will lead to the 100% take over of Africa
• No other place on Earth will be conquered and consumed by
the Europeans to the degree that Africa was
• Before imperialization, Africa was populated by 100’s
of Ethnic Groups speaking over 1,000 languages
• African Societies ranged from small tribal
communities to empires of 10 million people
• Before imperialization, Europe only interacted with
coastal territories in Africa near the Mediterranean
and Atlantic coast
• An early Dutch Colony had been established in Cape
Town, South Africa
• European interest in Africa sparked in the 17th and
18th Centuries due to slave trade
• There were independent nations like Ethiopia (led by
Menelik II) and Liberia
• Liberia was under the sphere of influence of the U.S.
and was created by them as a colony for free slaves
5 Motivating Factors behind Imperialism:
1. Economic
2. Political
3. Ideological
4. Religion
5. Exploratory
• Which of these factors were directly related to the
Industrial Revolution which had preceded the era of
Imperialism?
• Inventions of the Industrial Revolution such as the Steam
Engine (Steam powered River Boats) and the Maxim Gun
gave the Europeans a huge advantage over the native African
populations.
• European Nations embarked on a mad scramble for land
beginning in 1880.
• In 1882 Belgium established control of the Congo. Soon
thereafter, Britain, Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal all had
claims to African lands.
• Berlin Conference was held in 1884/1885.
• 14 European nations met to establish rules for the division of
Africa
• They Agreed that any European nation could claim land in
Africa by notifying other nations of their claims and showing
they could control the area.
• By 1914 only Ethiopia and Liberia were unclaimed.
• Answer the following question then discuss it with a partner.
• what you think it must have been like upon seeing the Europeans
for the first time?
• Most Europeans supported imperialism
• Associated spreading their countries empire with a deep sense
of national pride (nationalism)
• Critics in both Europe and the United States disagreed with the
amount of cruelty and lack of freedom towards the natives
• Imperialism was often seen as the obligation or duty of
Industrialized nations.
• In 1899, the British novelist and poet Rudyard Kipling wrote the
poem "The White Man’s Burden”
• Urged the U. S. to take up the "burden" of empire building
• Theodore Roosevelt said that the poem was "rather poor poetry, but
good sense from the expansion point of view.”
• Some wrote parodies and critiques of Kipling’s poem to
• "The Black Man’s Burden" and "The Poor Man’s Burden," by H.T.
Johnson and George McNeil were two parodies.
Take up the White Man’s burden—
Send forth the best ye breed—
Go, bind your sons to exile
To serve your captives’ need;
To wait, in heavy harness,
On fluttered folk and wild—
Your new-caught sullen peoples,
Half devil and half child.
According to Kipling, what is the “White Man’s burden”?
• British Imperialism
• British dominated 19th century imperialism
• Reached it’s height under Queen Victoria
• Jump start due to early industrialization
• Originally about economics
• Glorified imperialism in stories,
newspapers, poetry
• Ex. Kipling’s White Man’s Burden
• Major Rivals:
• France
• Germany
• Belgium
• Cecil Rhodes built the
trans-Africa railway
• Rhodesia was named
after him (now Zimbabwe)
“We [the British] happen to be the best in the world, with the highest ideals
of dependency and justice and liberty and peace, and the more of the world
we inhabit, the better it is for humanity.”
• Cecil Rhodes was a British explorer, investor, opportunist and
imperialist.
• Rhodes was a full on imperialist and supported everything
imperialists believed in
• Rhodes became one of the wealthiest imperialists of the era
• Rhodes moved from England to South Africa as a
boy
• Become involved in the Diamond Industry, founded
DeBeers Mining Inc.
• Later attended Oxford University
• Instrumental in Expanding Britain’s control of African
territories by obtaining mining rights
• Wanted to connect South Africa and Cairo, Egypt by
British Controlled Colonies
• Named Rhodesia after himself, now Zimbabwe
• Rhodes famously declared: "To think of these stars that you see overhead at
night, these vast worlds which we can never reach. I would annex the
planets if I could; I often think of that. It makes me sad to see them so clear
and yet so far."[17]
• “We must find new lands from which we can easily obtain raw materials
and at the same time exploit the cheap slave labor that is available from the
natives of the colonies. The colonies would also provide a dumping ground
for the surplus goods produced in our factories.”[18][19]
• “Pure philanthropy is very well in its way but philanthropy plus five percent
is a good deal better.”[20]
• "I contend that we are the first race in the world, and that the more of the
world we inhabit the better it is for the human race...If there be a God, I
think that what he would like me to do is paint as much of the map of Africa
British Red as possible...“
• "In order to save the 40 million inhabitants of the United Kingdom from a
bloody civil war, we colonial statesmen must acquire new lands to settle the
surplus population, to provide new markets for the goods produced by them
in the factories and mines..."
• Rhodes wanted to expand the British Empire because he believed that the
Anglo-Saxon race was destined to greatness.
• In his last will and testament, Rhodes said of the British, "I contend that we
are the finest race in the world and that the more of the world we inhabit the
better it is for the human race."
• He wanted to make the British Empire a superpower in which all of the
white countries in the empire, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
and Cape Colony, would be represented in the British Parliament.
• Said that he wanted to breed an American elite of philosopher-kings who
would have the USA rejoin the British Empire.
• Rhodes also respected the Germans and admired the Kaiser, and allowed
Germans to be included in the Rhodes scholarships.
• He believed that eventually Great Britain, the USA and Germany together
would dominate the world and ensure peace together.[
"I admire him, I frankly confess it; and when his time comes I
shall buy a piece of the rope for a keepsake“
~ Mark Twain
• Africans, Dutch and British
all clashed over land and
resources in S. Africa
• Zulu Wars: From the late
1700’s to 1800’s Zulu
chief Shaka created a
large centralized state
• Successors unable to
protect state from British
control
• Zulu area’s became part
of British territory in 1887
• Dutch settlers known as Boers
set up land in Cape of Good
Hope in late 1600’s
• Britain took over in the
1800’s and the Dutch and
British clashed over policies
regarding land and slaves
• In 1830’s Boers moved north
in whats called the Great
Trek to escape Bristish
• Boers found themselves
fighting the Zulu’s over the
northern land they were
taking
• Diamonds and gold were
discovered in S. Africa in the
1860’s and 1880’s
• Outsiders rushed into the
area to make fortunes
• Boers tried to keep the
outsiders from gaining any
rights
• An attempted rebellion
against Boer control of the
land failed
• Boers blamed Britain and in
1899 went to war against
them
• Boers used commando raids
and guerilla tactics against
British
• British countered by burning
Boer farms and imprisoning
women and children in
disease ridden concentration
camps
• Britain won the war and in
1902 the Boer republics
joined into the self-governing
Union of South Africa
• Under British control
• African’s could not fight against
Europe’s superior arms and
weapons
• Sometimes Africans formed
alliances with Europeans
• Hoped agreement would allow
them to remain independent
• Often times the Europeans turned
their backs on African’s and deny
them Ind.
• Other times African’s resisted
Europeans with everything they
had
• Aside from Ethiopia every
resistance failed
• Algeria resisted French
control for 50 years
• Maji Maji Rebellion:
• African’s in German East
Africa resisted German
control
• Believed that a magic water
“maji-maji” would turn
German bullets into water
• Armed with spears and their
magic water the African’s
attacked a German post
• German machine guns
mowed down 26,000
• Menelik II became emperor of
Ethiopia in 1889
• He successfully played Italian,
British and French against each
other
• Meanwhile he built up a huge
stockpile of weapons
• Menelik was about to sign a treaty
with Italy that would give Italy
what he thought was a small
portion of land
• He discovered differences between
the meanings of words in Amharic
(Ethiopian language) and Italian
• Italy was tricking him into giving up all
of Ethiopia as a protectorate of Italy
• Italy sent forces into
northern Ethiopia
• Menelik declared war
• Battle of Adowa:
• One of the greatest
battles in African history
• Ethiopia successfully
defeated Italy to maintain
its independence
• Most effects were negative
• Positives:
• Europeans lowered local
warfare
• Humanitarian benefits
improved sanitation, hospitals
and schooling
• African products became
valuable
• Railroads, dams, telephones
all brought into Africa
• Negatives:
• Lost control of their land
• Many died from European
diseases like smallpox
• Thousands of lives lost from
resistance
• Famines from switching from
subsistence farming to cash
crops
• Breakdown of African culture
• Boundaries included rival
tribes living together which
caused conflict and still does
today
“Our whole existence has been controlled by
people with an alien attitude to life, people with
different customs and beliefs. They have
determined the form of government, the types of
economic activity, and the schooling which our
children have…A man who tries to control the life
of another does not destroy the other any less
because he does it, as he thinks, for the other’s
benefit. It is the principle which is wrong, the
principle of one man governing another without
his consent.”
-Julius Nyerere of Tanzania
With a neighbor• 1) discuss what is being said in the quote.
• Ottoman Empire began to fall
apart
• Tried to make reforms but
failed
• After Ottoman ruler Suleiman I
died, no ruler could maintain
power
• Ottoman Empire fell far behind
Europe
• Attempts to modernize failed
• Rising nationalism weakened
empire as Greece and Serbia
gained independence
• Europe was ready to jump in
and imperialize
• Geopolitics: interest in
taking lands for strategic
military, economic or political
use
• Ottoman empire was very
strategically located
• Access to Mediterranean and
Atlantic
• Russia had to go through
Ottoman Empire to get to the
Mediterranean
• Russia launched many wars
against Ottomans to gain
access to the Black Sea
• 1853 Russia and Ottomans went to
war
• Fought on Crimean peninsula on
the Black Sea
• Britain and France wanted to
prevent Russia from taking this land
and joined the Ottomans
• War showed how weak the
Ottomans were
• Even with French and British help they
were losing
• Ottomans lost control of Romania,
Montenegro, Bosnia, Bulgaria, and
land in Africa
• By the 1910’s Ottoman Empire was
a small portion of land
• Egypt attempted to
modernize to prevent
European colonization
• Leader Muhammad Ali
modernized military and
economy
• His grandson Isma’il
supported building the
Suez Canal
• Suez Canal was a man-made
water way connecting the Red
Sea to the Mediterranean Sea
• Built with French money and
Egyptian labor
• Egypt owed over $450 Million
from project
• Could not pay the debt and
Britain took over the canal
• In 1882 Britain occupied Egypt
to control canal
• Canal was “lifeline of the
Empire” as it connected Britain
to Asia and African colonies
• Asia, Russia and Britain
competed to take over Persia
through spheres of influence
• Britain gained land in
Afghanistan to buffer Russia
from India
• Britain discovered oil here in
1908
• Persia sold rights to European
businesses to control certain
areas and products
• Citizens of Persia did not want
European influence in Persia
and fought against these
businesses
• When Persian leaders
attempted to sell
tobacco rights to Britain
the people boycotted
• The people boycotted
tobacco and were
successful
• Persia cancelled the sale
• By 1907 Britain and Russia
took over Persia and divided
it into spheres of influence
• In the Muslim territories of
the Ottoman Empire and
Persia, Europeans used
economic imperialism to
achieve their goals
• Created spheres of influence
• Muslim attempts to
modernize and resist
European changes were too
little too late
• British Imperialism in
India
• India was the largest and
most lucrative colony of the
entire British Empire.
• 1600’s British East India
Co. began trading in India;
over time gaining more
economic and POLITICAL
control
• “Jewel in the crown”
the most valuable of all
the British colonies
• Period of British rule was
known as the “Raj”
• The East India Company
controlled India and
operated in India under the
authorization of the
government of England.
• Britain regulated the
company but rarely
interfered
• As an Imperial holding, India
became so successful, it was
became referred to as the
“Jewel of the Crown”.
• To Maintain control, the E.I.C.
relied on a military made up
of Sepoy’s (Indian’s serving
under the command of the
British).
• Resentment built reaching a
crisis with the Sepoy
Rebellion and the Cawnpore
massacre.
• Originally India was set up
based on its potential rather
than profit
• Over 300 million native Indians
to trade with
• Raw materials and large
population made India the
“Jewel in the Crown”
• Britain restricted India’s
production and consumption
strictly to Britain made goods
• Had to import clothing and
other goods from Britain rather
than make goods themselves
• Britain set up railroad
network in India
• Easily able to send raw
materials and goods from
interior to coast to be
traded
• Tea, indigo, coffee and
cotton were some of the
biggest raw materials
• Opium was grown and
sold to the Chinese (who
the British purposefully had
addicted to the drug)
• The Sepoy Rebellion or Uprising was fueled by rumors
• Years of discontent and objection to oppression came to a
collision point when rumors spread that the British were
disrespecting the Indian religions (Hindu and Muslim) by
forcing them to bite the top off of the ammunition cartridges
• The cartridges were sealed with animal fat (pork and beef)
both of which may not be consumed by Indian religions
• - Pork- Muslim
• - Beef- Hindu
• The rumors were that the British intentionally used these
products to intentionally force the Indians to violate their
religious beliefs.
• When an entire Sepoy group
refused to accept the
cartridges the British threw
them in jail
• The next day the Sepoy’s
rebelled
• The rebellion spread over
most of N. India
• Britain and the Sepoys were
trying to slaughter each
other
• It took the E.I.C over 1 year
to get the rebellion under
control
• India could not unite to
defeat the British
• Conflicts between
Hindu’s and Muslim’s
led to disunity
• Some Hindu’s preferred
the new British rule to the
old Muslim rule of India
• In 1858 Britain took direct
control over India
• The part of India that was
under direct control was
called the Raj
• India was divided into 11
provinces and 250 districts
• Often times only a few British
lived within a district that
contained millions of Indians
• Britain set up a GovernorGeneral to govern over India
• Fueled European racism
against Indians
• Distrust between British
and Indian’s increased
• Native’s in India began
trying to modernize to
limit control of Britain
• Nationalistic feelings
arose against the British
• Did not like being considered
second class
• Long-Term Effects of Colonization in India
• Resurgence of nationalism against GB
• Creation of:
• Indian National Congress-1855
• Mix of all Indians
• Muslim League-1906
• Just Muslim Indians
• Goal: push for independence and protection of
Muslim rights
Strong tension continues to develop between Hindus and
Muslims as nationalism is on the rise
• Positives:
• India now had the third
largest network of
railroads in the world
• Modern roads, telephones,
dams, bridges and canals
introduced
• Schools, colleges, hospitals
were built
• Ended local warfare
between local rulers
• Negatives:
• India had little to no
economic or political
power
• India’s industries were
restricted
• Racist attitudes and
missionary complex
threatened Indian culture
• Imperialism in China
• Chinese had firm traditions stable & secure
• Looked down at outsiders
• Had strong agricultural economy
• Foreign traders brought new products – foods – led to
population boom in 18th Century
• Strong mining and manufacturing
• Many natural resources – salt, tin, silver, iron ore
• Produced fine silks, cottons, porcelain
• Tea/Opium Connection
• Chinese self sufficient  did not need to trade WITH West but did trade
TO West
• British wanted to find a good (product) Chinese would want to buy to
improve trade balance
OPIUM!
Used as pain reliever in Chinese medicine
Highly addictive
Over 12 million were hooked by 1830
• “By what right do they (British Merchants) …use the poisonous
drug (opium) to injure the Chinese people?...I have heard that
the smoking of Opium is strictly forbidden by your
country…Since it is not permitted to do harm to your own
country, then even less should you let it be passed on to the
harm of other countries.”
• Lin Zexu, quoted in China’s Response to the West
• Opium War
• The British refused to stop trading
OPIUM
• China begins naval battle with British
to stop sale of Opium
• China easily DEFEATED
• Effects
• HONG KONG given to G.B.
• Special rights given to G.B. – exempt
from trade laws at ports
• With territorial holdings around the globe that included:
• Canada, South Africa, India, Hong Kong and Australia, Great Britain
dominated the Era of Imperialism
“The Sun Never Sets on the British Empire”
~This famous adage was factually accurate.
• Issues in China
•
•
•
•
POPULATION had grown dramatically
Food supply lacking
Government CORRUPTION
Opium use INCREASING
WHAT’S A NATION TO DO?
Overthrow the government, of course!
TAIPING REBELLION &
BOXER REBELLION
• Led by Hong Xiuquan
• Taiping means “great peace”
• Wanted to make China
independent and share
wealth to limit poverty
• 1 million people joined his
forces
• Took over large areas in SE
China
• Eventually lost control and
the 14 year long rebellion
was crushed
• Boxer Rebellion:
• Resentment of foreigners
led to people joining rebel
group known as the
Society of Harmonious Fists
• Known as Boxers
• Soldiers from Britain,
France, Germany, U.S.
quickly defeated rebels
• Rebellions led to strong
sense of nationalism in
China
• Effects of Instability in China
• Foreigners import resources for MILITARY
• China loses control of QUALITY and in
trade balance
• Increasing WESTERN INFLUENCE
• Public not overly supportive of program
• Foreigners attack
• Other countries capitalize on China’s
weaknesses
• Resulting treaties lead to spheres of
influence
• Use pages 335-339 in text to provide an overview of the
causes, effects, and policies that affected China in the 1800s
and 1900s. Fill out corresponding graphic organizer!
Causes
Events/Policies
Opium War
Taiping Rebellion
Self-Strengthening
Movement
Open Door Policy
Boxer Rebellion
Effects
•Japan modernized and
unified based on the western
model, therefore, the country
was able to prevent
imperialistic takeover!
• During the 17th Century
Japan was shut off from the
Western world
• Continued to trade with
China
• Major European powers
wanted to trade with Japan
• America pulled up off cost
of Tokyo with steam powered
ships and cannons
• Japan knew right then and
there that they had to
modernize to withstand new
Western tech.
• Treaty of Kanagawa:
This treaty between
Japan and the U.S. gave
the U.S. 2 supply ports
and an Embassy in
Japan
• Other European countries
soon followed
• Japan feared losing control of
land
• Emperor Mutsuhito took over
and ruled for 45 years
• Meiji Era was time period
where Japan adopted Western
ways
• Studied foreign nations and
adopted their ways
• Set up navy like the British,
education like America, and
army like the Germans
• Set up Industrialized economy
• Japan had become strongest
military power in Asia
• Fought foreign control
• China broke a trade agreement
with Japan over Korea
• Rebellions in Korea led to China
sending military to help
• Japan sent its military to fight
Chinese
• Sino Japanese War began
• Japan drove China out of Korea
• Japan took over Manchuria
• Signed peace agreement giving
Japan Taiwan
• Russia and Japan were now
the major powers in East Asia
• Russia and Japan went to
war over Manchuria
• Japan drove Russia out of
Korea
• Japan captured most of
Russia’s navy
• 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth
ended the war
• Japan received captured
territories
• After defeating Russia,
Japan attacked Korea
• 1905 made Korea a
protectorate
• 1907 Korea gave up control
of country
• In 1910 Japan officially
annexed Korea
• Japan ruled Korea through
harsh tactics
• Took over Korean news, schools,
society, businesses
• Japans harsh rule led to
rising Korean nationalism
- U.S. desired
to trade with
Japan
- Treaty that
opened 2 ports
to U.S.
- Allowed U.S. to
establish
embassy in
Japan
- Sparked
other powers to
ask for
permission to
trade at treaty
ports
- Japanese
citizens not
happy
- Japanese
citizens angry
about Treaty of
Kanagawa
- Tokugawa
shogun disliked
- 45 year reign
after Tokugawa
shogun
- Best way to
oppose Western
imperialism was
to adopt new
ways of living
- Became
strongest military
power and
became more
imperialistic
Japan became
more modernized
and saw empire
building as a way
to protect itself
Forced Korea to
open its ports,
China broke
agreement which
said it would stay
out of Korea
War between
Japan and China
to get China out of
Korea
China was ousted
from Korea
Increased Japan’s
influence over the
region
Russia and
Japan
emerged as
major
powers in
East Asia
- War over
Manchuria
- Japan offered
Russia rights if they
would stay out
Korea (they do
not!)
- Drove
Russian
troops out of
Korea and
later
annexed the
country
Japan made
Korea a
protectorate
Brought country
under control
- Japan forbade
public protest
and completely
forced Japanese
life and culture
on Korea
- Sparked
Korean
Nationalist
movement
• Outcomes of Imperialism in Africa
• Benefits
• Reduced local warfare
• Improved Infrastructure
• sanitation, transportation & communication
• Provided better medical care
• Consequences
• Lost control
• Lost customs & traditions
• Famines due to cash crops
• Unnatural division of continent
Great
Britain and
Russia
divide
Persia and
have access
to oil-rich
lands
• India becomes a colony
of Britain
• China resists spheres of
influence and British
control
• Japan becomes only
Asian imperial power
• Takes land in Korea,
Taiwan, Manchuria
Important facts and figures about Imperialism:
• Motivated by National Prestige (nationalism), need for natural
resources, and desire for new markets.
• Many Europeans justified imperialism through the concept of
“social darwinism”, often fueled by racism. Reflected in
Kipling’s peom “the white man’s burden”.
• Africa was easily controlled by the Europeans because of many
factors including: Europe had modern weapons, they had
modern steam power technology and transportation, advanced
medicine (cure for malaria), and the Africans lacked cultural,
ethnic unity and had many logistical problems stemming from a
lack of communication.
• The greatest Imperial power to emerge was Great Britain. Their
empire was so vast it was said that the “Sun Never Sets on the
British Empire”.
• One of the most valuable areas of control during Imperialism
(and to this day) was the Suez Canal- which is strategically
important as the shortest route between Europe and Asia.
• In Asia, China came under great imperialistic pressure, while
Japan was able to resist because they had modernized and
tried to imitate the industrial and cultural successes of the
Europeans.