Unit 3:Interest Groups, Political
Parties, Media
Linkage Institutions
Linkage Institutions (remember?)
• Political Channels through which people’s
concerns become political issues and
political policy.
• Examples:
– Interest Groups
– Political Parties
– Mass Media
Interest Groups
What Are Special Interest
Groups?
• A group of like-minded people who want to
influence public policy
WHY DO SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS EXIST
The Theories : Pluralism
• Pluralism Theory (growth of interest groups
prevents the concentration of excessive power in
the hands of a few and thus enhances democracy)
– Groups provide a key link between the people and the
government.
– Groups compete and no one group will become too
dominant.
– Groups play by the “rules of the game.”
– Groups weak in one resource may use another.
• i.e. all legitimate groups can affect public policy.
– Lobbying is open to all so is not a problem.
Disturbance Theory
• Most pluralists subscribe to disturbance theory as an
explanation for the formation of interest groups
• The Theory:
– Groups form as a result of changes in the political system
– One wave of groups is replaced by another wave of
groups offering a different perspective.
– Thus the voices of these groups act as a counterbalance
to each other.
– Basically: the more activities the government undertakes,
the more interest groups form as a response to those
activities.
Elite Theory
• Elite Theory and the Denial of Pluralism
– Real power is held by relatively few.
– The largest corporations hold the most power.
– Elite power is fortified by a system of interlocking and
concentrated power centers.
– Groups are unequal in power because elites prevail when it
comes to big policy decisions.
– Lobbying is a problem because it benefits the few at the
expense of the many.
Elitism and Transactions Theory
• Transactions Theory
– Elitists tend to reject pluralist disturbance theory as an
explanation of the formation of interest groups
• The Theory
– Argues that public policies are the result of narrowly
defined exchanges between political actors (elites)
– It is irrational for people to mobilize into groups
• Collective action will benefit members and non-members alike
– Groups that do not mobilize represent elites
• It is more cost efficient and effective for wealthier elites to
mobilize than poorer non-elites.
Hyperpluralism
#^$%
!
• The Hyperpluralist Critique
– Groups have become too powerful as the gov’t tries to
appease every interest.
– Results in contradictory policies.
• Hyperpluralism & “Interest Group Liberalism”
– Government tries to please every interest = hodgepodge
of conflicting regulations, and agencies
– The more groups that arise the more stuff they will ask
for and get.
– Creates a dysfunctional government.
– Government needs to plan, it needs to be sure there is
justice, and “interest group liberalism” allows neither.
What Are Iron Triangles?
• Sub-governments
– Networks of groups that exercise a great deal of
control over specific policy areas.
– Consist of interest groups, government
agencies (bureaucracy), and congressional
committees that handle particular policies
– Also known as…
IRON TRIANGLES
Iron Triangles
Interest Groups: Organizing to Influence (video and
guide 30 mins)
Fundamental Goals of Interest
Groups
1. Influence public- Stimulate interest in issues- special
interest groups will publicize issue and go on the news to
air their concerns
2. Influence Congress/government
3. Testify at hearings
4. Change laws to have their interests preserved or paid
attention to
5. Vehicle for Voter Participation*
6. Watchdog function
Examples of Interest Groups
-
AARP(American Association of Retired People) (social)
American Federation of Labor (AFL) (labor)
American Dental Association (professional)
National Rifle Association (NRA)
(single issue interest group)
- National Association for the advancement of Colored
People (NAACP) (civil rights)
- Christian Coalition (religious)
- Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) (single interest
group)
Why Join an Interest Group?
1. Solitary Incentives: enjoyment, companionship
– Solitary incentives require organizations to structure themselves as
coalitions of small local units
– Helped by the importance of local governments in the U.S.
– Examples: League of Women Voters , NAACP, PTO, PTA
American Legion
2. Material Incentives: money, services
– Organization may also influence how laws are administered to bring
benefits to members
– Examples: Farm Organizations, AARP
3. Purposeful Incentives: goal/purpose of the
organization
–
–
–
–
They are passionate about the goal(s) of the organization
They have a strong sense of civic duty
Cost of joining is minimal
Examples: MADD
How Do Interest Groups Try to Shape Policy?
1.) Lobbying
– Communication by someone other than a citizen acting on his own
behalf, directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of
influencing his decision.
• Cooperative Lobbying: groups with a similar purpose
combining their efforts. E.g. liberal interest groups joined forces
to put pressure on the Senate to reject the nomination of Robert
Bork to the Supreme Court
• Grassroots lobbying: organizing lobbying efforts at the local
level
• Netroots lobbying: political activism organized though blogs
and other online media
Functions of Lobbyists (See What are the goals
of interest groups)
•
•
•
•
Influence Government
Provide information to government
Testify at hearings
Help write legislation
– They often help politicians plan political
strategies for legislation
– They also help politicians plan political
strategies for reelection campaigns.
Regulation of Lobbying
• 1946 Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act: required anyone whose
“principal purpose” was to influence the passage or defeat of legislation
in Congress to register Congress and file quarterly financial reports.
However, the Regulation Act was widely perceived as poorly drafted and
ineffective with many loopholes.
• Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995: Tightened up registration and
financial disclosure requirements. Placed restrictions on gifts, meals and
expense paid travel that members of Congress may receive from
lobbyists. Former agency employees must wait 1 year before lobbying
that agency
• Honest Leadership and Open Government Act 2007: Ban on gifts and
honoraria to members of Congress and their staff. Tougher disclosure
requirements, longer time limits on moving from government jobs to
private lobbying jobs
• The “Revolving Door”: Should former members of Congress be allowed
to become lobbyists??
The Ethics in Government Act (1978)
•
President Obama updated these regulations in his 1st day in office:
– Aides leaving the White House could not lobby executive agencies for 2 years
– Members of the administration cannot accept gifts from lobbyists.
The Pros and Cons of Lobbyists
• They provide useful information
to government
• They provide a means of
participation for people
• They provide a means of
representation on the basis of
interest rather than geography.
• A linkage mechanism between
people and government
• A 3rd House of Congress
• As Madison pointed out in
Federalist #10, the remedy of
curing the evils of factions by
eliminating their causes is worse
than the disease. Potential loss
of liberty is worse than the
abuses of lobbyists.
• Rich and powerful interests are
over-represented
• Average and poor people are
under-represented
• By safeguarding liberty,
equality is sacrificed
• Single issue lobbies especially
contribute to political
polarization
• Lobbies contribute even further
to diffusion of power making it
even more difficult for
government to get things done
• National interest is sacrificed
for narrow interests with loud
voices.
How Interest Groups Try to
Shape Policy
2. Campaign Contributions (“electioneering”)
–
–
–
Recruit/endorse candidates who support their
positions
Speak for those who need representation or buy
candidate support.
Provide testimony, and get members to work for
candidates; some form Political Action Committees
(PACs) (more later)
How Interest Groups try to Shape
Policy
3. Litigation
Usually a last resort  used if other tools fail
Interest groups can file amicus curiae briefs to
influence a court’s decision.
• “friend of the court”
• Raise additional points of view
• Present information not contained in the briefs of the
formal parties
– Class Action lawsuits permit a small number of
people to sue on behalf of all other people similar
situated.
–
–
How Groups Try to Shape Policy
4.
Grassroots Lobbying/Mass Mobilization
–
Because public opinion makes its way to policymakers,
groups primarily use the media:
• cultivate a good public image to build a reservoir of
goodwill with the public
(Think Thank You for Smoking)
• Use marketing strategies to influence public opinion
• Advertise to motivate and inform the public about an
issue and get them to act (Mass mobilization)
• Also called indirect lobbying because the goal is to get the
general public to contact legislators and government
officials concerning the issue at hand.
What are PACs?
POLITICAL ACTION COMMITTEEs
The political arm of special interest groups that raise and give
away money
Why have they grown?
•Explosive Growth since 1970s
•Factors:
•Scandals: Watergate
WHY HAVE PACS GROWN?
•Grown Significantly since 1974 Federal Election Campaign Act
YEAR
# of PACS
SPENDING
1976 1,000 PACs
$19million
2000 4,500 PACS
$900million
(32% of all spending)
2000 $1mil. Primary
2008 $14mil.Primary
Over-All Spending Sources
(2010)
• Industry
Grand Total
%Dem %Repub
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
$46,557,623
$38,610,407
$28,671,624
$21,426,989
$12,497,50
$12,016,066
$9,798,635
$9,714,655
$8,511,935
$7,981,956
77%
50%
56%
51%
067%
62%
47%
55%
75%
82%
Lawyers/LawFirms
Retired
Securities & Investment
Real Estate
Misc Business
Business Services
Misc Finance
HealthProfessionals
Education
TV/Movies/Music
23%
50%
44%
49%
33%
38%
53%
45%
25%
18%
WHY FUNDRAISING?
$$$$$ for Ads
Fundraising vs. Campaigning
2008- ~$5 billion for national elections
2012- > $6 billion
Campaign Finance Rules
Federal Election Campaign Act 1974 McCain-Feingold BCRA 2002
Old law said:
What new law does:
-Created the Federal Election Com.
-Bans National Parties from
-individual can give $1,000 in
primary Election
Raising and Spending “soft money”
-Prohibition on “soft money” solicitation
- Issue Ads (ads that can mention
-1000 limit an individual can give in
General Election
-PACs give $5000 to indiv
-Indiv. Can give $5000 to PACS
-Indiv can give $20,000 to party
a name but not mention who to vote
for) are to be treated as campaign
ads
- Issue Ads cannot be aired 30 days
before a primary and/ or 60 days
before a general election by
advocacy or interest groups
- Hard money donations to Senators
and the President is raised to $2,700
which is indexed for inflation
-Donation to Party raised to $32,000
Election Law Loopholes
Federal Election Campaign
Act:Loopholes in the Law
Shays- Mehann/ McCain- Feingold
Reform:Loopholes in the Law
-Soft Money (2002- $421 million)
-Donors could re-route the soft money they now give to
the national parties and sent it to the state and county
level
-Independent Campaign Spending
-- Issue Ads
--Buckley vs. Valeo (1976)
In the 1999-2000 election
cycle, corporations, unions, and
interest groups spent
more than $493 million on
political campaigns for federal
offices through soft
money, a practice that was
outlawed by the campaignfinancing reform legislation
of 2002.
Soft money
-- Party activists could form new local party committees
for the primary purpose of accepting soft money
contributions.
-- An individual could pay for radio and TV “issue ads”
that praise or denigrate a candidate.
-- Advocacy groups (527s) or individuals could broadcast
“teaser” ads that don’t mention a candidate’s name, yet
point in his direction. (e.g.- Texas has one of the worst
pollution problems of all the states. Would you want the
U.S. to have the same problem?)
--Politicians can win friends and gain influence by urging
their loyal donors to chip in money for their favorite nonprofit advocacy groups. These groups would then help
the candidate get elected through et out the vote drives,
etc.
527s
THE NEW PACS/POLITICAL PARTY?
Special Interest Ads
The race was so tight in some states in 2000
that Democratic interest groups are tried to
blunt the appeal of Green Party candidate
Ralph Nader
What is new in the last ten years is the
proliferation of issue advocacy ads during
political campaigns. During campaigns,
interest groups and trade associations
create, pay for, and then air hundreds of
advertisements. These ads call attention to
the positions or voting patterns of a
candidate but do not tell the voter to "vote
for" or "vote against" that person. Thus, the
advertising is protected as "free speech"
under the First Amendment rather than
regulated as campaign advertising.
The NAACP Voter Fund grabbed attention, with this
graphic ad in which the daughter of James Byrd recalls
the aftermath of his dragging death in Texas.
NARAL: Voting for Ralph Nader
helps elect George W. Bush.
So when Governor George W. Bush refused to
support hate- crime legislation, it was like my
father was killed all over again.
"We won't be dragged away from our future."
Special Interest Ads (cont.)
Recent Campaign Finance Events
Citizen’s United v. FEC
Corporations and Unions can
spend $ in elections (and
broadcast advocating a
candidate) because they’re
protected by the 1st
Amendment’s freedom of
speech
Super Pacs
- independent expenditure committee
- prohibited from coordinate with candidates
- unlimited donations
- must disclose donations over $200
Recent Campaign Finance Events
Citizen’s United v. FEC
Corporations and Unions can
spend $ in elections (and
broadcast advocating a
candidate) because they’re
protected by the 1st
Amendment’s freedom of
speech
Super Pacs
- independent expenditure committee
- prohibited from coordinate with candidates
- unlimited donations
- must disclose donations over $200
II III
Commercials II
501 (c) (4)
Social Welfare non-profit organization
- political activity OK as long as not “primary purpose”
- must disclose amounts of spending
- ***does not have to disclose donors names****
McCutcheon v. Federal Election
CommissionCan individual’s contributions to committees
be limited or is protected by free speech?
Some Facts:
$970 million The estimated amount spent by outside groups during
the 2012 cycle
$874.6 million The amount that went toward Obama's re-election this election cycle,
with the Obama campaign burning through $553.2 million, the DNC spending
$263.2 million, and the biggest Obama Super PACS spending $58 million.
$844.6 million The amount that went toward Romney's candidacy this cycle, with
the campaign spending $360.4 million, the RNC adding $284 million, and Super PACs
adding $200 million.
$265 million The gap between the amount President Obama and Mitt Romney spent
on TV ads