TEXT TYPES
Disampaikan dalam
Pelatihan Menulis Teks Bahasa Inggris untuk Guru-Guru SMA
Oleh:
Emi Emilia, PhD
Bandung, 2 Juni 2007
Text & Context
Text Types
Text: weaving; referring to words and sentences woven together to
create a single whole (Christie and Misson, 1998, p. 8).
Text= discourse in critical discourse analysis (CDA) = “language
use in speech and writing” (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997).
“A text is a semantic unit, … the language people produce and react
to, what they say and write, and read and listen to, in daily life.
… The term covers both speech and writing … it may be …
conversation, telephone talk, debate, … public notices, ...
intimate monologue or anything else” (Halliday, 1975, p. 123).
•
Whether a stretch of language is a text or not has nothing to do
with its size or form. … The single word stop on a road sign and
Tolsoy’s novel War and Peace are both texts because they are
unified wholes. One page of War and Peace, though longer than
a stop sign, is not a text because it cannot stand alone as a
unified whole (Feez and Joyce, 1998, p. 4; juga bisa dilihat
dalam tulisan Lemke, 1991; Eggins, 1994; Christie and Misson,
1998).
• Context: “being woven together”, with the
prefix Con carrying the sense of being
together; elements that accompany a text
(Christie and Misson, 1998, p. 8).
• Context of Situation:
immediate situation of language: Field, Tenor,
Mode (Register)
• Context of culture:
Factors which determine collectively the way
the text is interpreted in its context of
situation.
The Relationship Between Language,
Register dan Genre
(cited from Eggins, 1994, p.34)
The relationship between Text and
Context :
Dialectical: Text creates the context as
much as the context creates the text.
Any text is said to be comprehensible in
terms of the context which gives rise to it.
Context is known only because of the text
which gives it life. Conversely, text is only
known because of the context which
makes it relevant (Christie and Misson,
1998, p. 8).
Texture:
“what holds the clauses of a text together to
give them unity” (Eggins, 1994, p. 85).
Intertextuality:
The way text refers to other texts.
Two important Dimensions of Texture: Coherence
dan Cohesion.
• Coherence refers to the way a group of clauses or
sentences relate to the context.
Two types of coherence: situational or registerial
coherence and generic coherence.
• A text has situational coherence when we can think
of one situation in which all the clauses of the text
could occur.i.e. when can specify a field, mode, and
tenor for the entire collection of clauses.
• A text has generic coherence when we can
recognize the text as an example of a particular
genre, i.e. when we can identify a Schematic
Structure, with each part of the text expressing one
element of the unfolding, staged organization of the
language event.
Look at The following examples
• 1. Up road runs they. 2. To sign please form
those page on. 3. Three children Shirley have:
boy two, girl (Source: Eggins, 1994)
• 1. I’ve been learning English for two years. 2.
He’s been playing the guitar for six months. 3.
They’ve been living in Sydney for one month. 4.
We’ve been working here for 3 years. 5. She’s
been studying French for two weeks (Source:
Eggins, 1994).
• 1. Once upon a time there was a little white
mouse called “Tiptoe”. 2. It’s very rarely hot in
Paris. 3. When does the race start? 4. It does
so. 5. No, I don’t know how to make chocolate
• The little white mouse sniffed the cheese
carefully. Camembert is a soft, French
cheese. The French consume a lot of dairy
products. Isn’t milk an important source of
calcium? You know of course that vitamin
deficiencies can lead to feelings of fatigue
and listlessness (Source: Eggins, 1994).
• I had always wanted to see Paris. 2.
However, you can imagine how excited I
was one there. 3. We had wanted to do
some sightseeing. 4. And unfortunately it
was cold and wet. 5. Meanwhile we were
exhausted by 6 o’clock (Source: Eggins,
1994).
• Mark offered Lisa the box of chocolate. 2. She
took two of the chocolates out of the box of
chocolates. 3. She put one of the chocolates
down on the saucer of her cup. 4. She started
eating the other one of the chocolates she had
taken out of the box of chocolates. 5. Then she
started eating the other chocolate she had taken
out of the box of chocolates. 6. These chocolates
out of the box of chocolates are delicious, she
said. 7. Is that chocolate out of the box of
chocolates delicious, he replied. 8. “Why don’t
you take another chocolate out of the box of
chocolates” he suggested. 9. I will take another
chocolate out of the box of chocolates” she
replied. 10. And so she took another chocolate
out of the box of chocolates (Source: Eggins,
1994).
1. Mark offered Lisa the box of chocolates.
2. She took two out of the box. 3. Placing
one down on her saucer, 4. she started
eating the other. 5. “These are delicious”
she said. 6. “Are they?” he replied. 7.
“Then why don’t you take another?” he
suggested. 8. “I will” she replied. 9. And
so she did (Source: Eggins, 1994).
Spoken language
A: 1. Have a chocolate, Lisa.
B: 2. The ferry just left.
A: 3. Thank you.
B: 4. Hallo
Text Types
Families of Texts Types:
Information Texts: Descriptions
Explanations
Reports
Directives
Texts which combine
more than one of these text-types
Story Texts: Recounts, Narratives
Persuasive Texts (Opinion Texts):
Expositions, Discussions
•
1. Spoof/ Recount
Social function
: to retell an event with a humorous twist
Generic (Schematic) structure
Orientation : sets the scene
Event(s)
: tell what happened
Twist
: provide the ‘punchline’
Significant lexicogrammatical features:
Focus on individual participants (in bold below)
Use of Material Processes (in italics below)
Circumtances of time and place
Use of past tense
Example:
:
Penguin in the Park
Orientation Once a man was walking in the park when he came across a penguin.
Event 1 He He took him to a policeman and said ‘I have just found this penguin. What should I
do?’ The policeman replied, ‘Take him to the zoo’. The policeman replied, ‘Take him to the zoo”
Event 2 The next day the policeman saw the same man in the same park and the man was still
carrying the penguin with him. The policeman was rather surprised and walked up to the man and
asked, ‘Why are you still carrying that penguin about? Didn’t you take it to the zoo?’ ‘I certainly
did,’ replied the man,
Twist ‘and it was a great idea because he really enjoyed it, so today I’m taking him to the movies!’
• 2. Recounts
Social function: To retell events for the purpose of informing or
entertaining
Generic (Schematic) structure
:
Orientation: provides the setting and introduces participants
Event(s) : tell what happened, in what sequence
Re-orientation: optional—closure of events
Significant lexicogrammatical features
Focus on specific participants (in bold below)
Use of Material Processes (in italics)
Circumtances of time and place (underlined)
Use of past tense
Focus on temporal sequence
Orientation: I was driving along the crossroad when the car suddenly
lurched to one side.
Event 1:
At first I thought a tyre had gone but then I saw telegraph
poles collapsing like matchsticks.
Event 2: The rocks came tumbling across the road and I had to
abandon the car.
Event 3:
left.
When I got back to town, well, as I said, there wasn’t much
3. Narrative
Social Function: To amuse, entertain and to deal with actual or
vicarious experience in different ways; Narratives deal with
problematic events which lead to a crisis or turning point of some
kind, which in turn finds a resolution.
Generic (Schematic) structure:
Orientation: sets the scene and introduces the participants
Evaluation: a stepping back to evaluate the plight
Complication: a crisis arises
Resolution: the crisis is resolved, for better or for worse
Re-orientation: optional
Significant lexicogrammatical features
Focus on specific and usually individualized Participants (in bold
below)
Use of Material Processes (and in this text, Behavioral and Verbal
Processes)
Use of Relational Processes and Mental Processes
Use of temporal conjunctions, and temporal Circumtances
Use of past tense
•
Orientation:
•
Major Complication: One day she heard her Uncle and Aunt talking about
Once upon a time there lived a little girl named Snow White. She
lived with her Aunt and Uncle because her parents were dead.
leaving Snow White in the castle because wanted they both to go to America and
they didn’t have enough money to take Snow White.
•
Resolution: Snow White did not want her Uncle and Aunt to do this so she
decided it would be best if she ran away. The next morning she ran away from
home when her Aunt and Uncle were having breakfast. She ran away into the
woods.
•
Complication: She was very tired and hungry.
•
Resolution:
•
Complication:
•
Major Resolution: Doc said, ‘if you wish, you may live here with us’. Snow White
Then she saw this little cottage. She knocked but no one answered
so she went inside and fell asleep.
Meanwhile, the seven dwarfs were coming home from work.
They went inside. There they found Snow White sleeping. Then Snow White woke
up. She saw the dwarfs. The dwarfs said,’What is your name?’ Snow White said,
‘My name is Snow White’.
said, ‘Oh could (I) Tankyou’. Then Snow White told the dwarfs the whole story and
Snow White and the 7 dwarfs lived happily ever after.
Narrative
Orientation
Once upon a time there was a Fairy who was pretty. She had
one child. She was good to people and animals. She went to
the fairy shop and got a toy bear for her girl. She washed the
bear when she came home. Her child was happy.
Complication/Resolution
When the bear tore Mum mended it. Mum loved the child.
Closure
We say goodbye (Source: Christie, 2002).
MY DAY IN OUTER SPACE
One day I was rocketing through Mars and I saw a strange Monster. He had four
eyes and you can get past him. If you go next to him he will eat you up. If he
comes next time I will press my button and it will fire at him. If it hits him he will
just drop down dead (Source: Martin, 1985).
Linguistic Features: The use of Once Upon a Time, One day, A long time ago
(Adverb of time), Adverb of Place (In a small country town or village …)
Recount
It is the school holidays this week. So far, I have done lots of things.On Monday
morning, I met Rina at he park. We went skating. In the afternoon we went for
a “Stories and Craft’ session at the library.
On Tuesday afternoon, I went to the movie with my cousins. We saw Harry Potter.
My favourit character is Harry. I think he is great.
On Wednesday, Grandma and I went to the zoo. We had a lot of fun. We ate a
picnic lunch.
On Thursday morning, Mum and I went shopping for my new school shoes. In the
evening, I went to a Brownies meeting from 5.30 p.m-7 p.m.
Oh no! I have not done my Maths and English homework. I will need to do that
tomorrow. After that I can play with my new computer game, Into Space.
Linguistic Features
Present tense (untuk menceritakan apa yang terjadi sekarang): It is the school holiday;
Present perfect (menceritakan kejadian yang sudah terjadi dan masih berhubungan dengan
kejadian sekarang): I have done.First person pronoun:
Past Tense (untuk menceritakan kejadian lampau): I met Rina; we went for a …; I went to
the movie; We saw …; Grandma and I went to…; We had a lot of fun; We ate a
picnic lunch.Pengguaan Pronoun I selalu dibelakang kalau dia dirangkaikan dengan
pronoun/propernoun Lain
Present Tense: My favourit character is Harry. I think he is …
Present Perfect (Negatif): I have not done …
Present Future (untuk menceritakan apa yang akan dilakukan di masa yang akan datang): I
will need to do that to; Can digunakan untuk menunjukkan kegiatan yang akan
dilakukan di masa yang akan datang: I can play
Interview
Q: Do you remember how you first got into breeding?
A: Yeah, quite by accident (Laughter).
Q: Can you tell me?
A: Yeah … a friend, she got a little puppy, and I just fell in love with it. And then
they told me that there was still one left in the litter, so I went and bought
her. No way in the world I’d been thought about showing or breeding or
anything like that. I’d always just liked dogs. So, we bought this one and she
was terrible. In fact I think she is the worst dog I’ve ever seen. Except, she
had a terrific nature and there’s no way in the world I’d ever get rid of her.
Still got her. And … we just went from there. We bought another one, and
…. Another one, and … we’ve got eight (laughter) (Source: Martin, 1985).
Our Excursion
We went to an excursion. The man took us there and on the way we got caught
in a traffic jam and waited. Then we were in Sydney and the bus stopped
and everyone got out. We went into the museum and we put our bags in the
cupboard. Then we went to see a film called ”A Message from a Dinosaur”.
Then we had lunch and I had some fruit. Then we went back to school
(Source: Martin, 1985).
4. Reports
•
Social Function: To describe the way things are, with reference
to a range of natural, man-made and social phenomena in our
environment.
•
•
Generic (Schematic) Structure
General Classification: tells what the phenomenon under
discussion is
Description: tells what the phenomenon under discussion is like in
terms of
•
– parts (and their functions)
– qualities
– habits or behaviours, if living; uses, if non-natural
•
•
•
•
•
Significant Lexicogrammatical Features
Focus on Generic Participants (in bold)
Use of Relational Processes (in italics) to state what is and that
which it is
Use of simple present tense (unless extinct)
No temporal sequence
Whales
• General Classification: Whales are sea-living
mammals
• Description: (behaviours, qualities,
parts): They therefore breathe air but cannot survive on
land. Some species are very large indeed and the blue whale,
which can exceed 30m in length, is the largest animals to
have lived on earth. Superficially, the whale looks rather like
a fish, but there are important differences in its external
structure: its tails consists of a pair of broad, flat, horizontal
paddles (the tail of a fish is vertical) and it has a single nostril
on top of its large, broad head. The skin is smooth and shiny
and beneath it lies a layer of fat (blubber). This is up to 30 cm
in thickness and serves to conserve heat and body fluids.
5. Description
• Social Function: To describe a particular person, place or
thing
• Generic Structure:
Identification: identifies phenomenon to be described
Description: Describe parts, qualities, characteristics
Significant Lexcogrammatical Features:
-Focus on specific Participants
-Use of Attributive and identifying processes
-Frequent use of ephitets and classifiers in nominal groups
-Use of simple present tense
Natural Bridge National park
• Identification
Natural bridge National Park is a luscious tropical rainforest
•
Description:
It is located 110 kilometers south of Brisbane and is reached by
following the Pacific Highway to Nerang and then by travelling
through the Numinbah Valley. This scenic roadway lies in the
shadow of the Lamington national park.
The phenomenon of the rock formed into a natural ‘arch’ and the cave
through which a waterfall cascades is a short I kilometre walk
below a dense rainforest canopy from the main picnic area.
Swimming is permitted in the rock pools. Night-time visitors to the
cave will discover the unique feature of the glow worms.
Picnic areas offer toilets, barbeques, shelter sheds, water and
fireplaces, however overnight camping is not permitted (text
source: Wignell, 1995)
Tips to Look After Your Husband
(Extract from -1960 Home Economics Book)
Source: Love, K., Pigdon, K., Baker, G., and Hampston, J. (2001). BUILT. Building Understandings in
Literacy and Teaching. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne;
http://www.edfac.unimelb.edu.au/LLAE
Have dinner ready: Plan ahead, even the night before, to have a delicious meal ready on time. This is a
way of letting him know that you have been thinking about him and that you are concerned about his
needs. Most men are hungry when they come home and the prospect of a good meal is part of the
warm welcome needed.
Prepare yourself: Take 10 minutes to rest so that you will be refreshed when he arrives. Touch up your
make up, put a ribbon in your hair and be fresh looking. He has been with a lot of work-weary
people. Be a little gay and a little more interesting. His boring day may need a lift.
Clear away the clutter: Make one last trip through the main part of the house just before your husband
arrives, gathering up school books, toys, paper etc. Then run a dust cloth over tables. Your husband
will feel he has reached a heaven of rest and order, and it will give you a lift too.
Prepare the children: Take a few minutes to wash the children’s hand and faces (if they are small), comb
her hair, and if necessary change their clothes. They are little treasures and he would like to see
them playing the part.
Minimise all noise: At the time of his arrival, eliminate all noise of washer, dryer, diswasher or vacuum. Try
to encourage the children to be quiet. Greet him with a warm smile and be glad to see him.
Some don’ts: Don’t greet him with problems of complaints. Don’t complain if he’s late for dinner. Count
this as minor compared with what he might have gone through that day.
Make him comfortable: Have him lean back in a comfortable chair or suggest he lie down in the bedroom.
Have a cool or warm drink ready for him. Arrange his pillow for him and offer to take off his shoes.
Speak in a low, soft, soothing and pleasant voice. Allow him to relax-unwind.
Listen to him: You may have a dozen things to tell him, but the moment of his arrival is not the time. Let
him talk first. Make the evening his: Never complain if he does not take you out to dinner or to other
place of entertainment. Instead, try to understand his world of strain and pressure, his need to be
home and to relax.
The Goal
Try to make your home a place of peace and order where your husband can renew himself in body and
spirit.
Procedure Or Recount?
If You want to grow beans the first thing you do is to go to a shop and
get a packet of bean seeds. Buy them. Bring them home. Plant them
in the garden water. Every foow days water them. When they grow
your pick them. Send them to the froot macker. And then someone
buys them. They take them home and eat them (written by a year 3
child, adapted from Martin, 1985:5)
Compare the above Procedure with the following text. Identify the
differences.
We wanted to grow beans, so we went to the shop and bought a packet
of bean seeds. Then we brought them home and planted them in the
garden. We watered them every few days and when they grew we
picked them. Then we sent them to the fruit maker. Someone bought
them and took them home and ate them.
Description Or Report?
Where did my family come from?
My dad came from England
My mum came from Australia
My nana came from Australia
My papa come from Australia.
My great grandmother came from Australia.
My great grandmother come from Scotland.
My great, great grandmother came from Ireland.
I don’t know anymore so good bye. (year 3)
Australian Immigration
Australians come from many different countries, including England, Ireland and
Scotland. Many Australians were born right here in Australia.
Birds
My bird lived up in a tree. It ate so it wouldn’t dies. It was a black bird and it
was small.
Birds
Birds live up in a tree. If they don’t eat they die. Red birds, black birds any
coloured birds dark birds light birds. Some are small and others are big
(Year 3).
Recounts, Procedures, Descriptions and Report- How
they are alike and different in terms of generality and
focus
Particular
General
Event focus
Recount
Procedure
Thing focus
Description
Report
Braschosaurus
Braschosaurus, the largest dinosaur of all, was three times as heavy
as Apatosaurus. One skeleton has been found that is 30
metres long. When it was alive, this animal must have weighed
more than fifteen times as much as modern elephant.
Brachiosaurus was a plant eater (Year 2, Martin, 1985)).
Radios have been around for years. They come in all sizes. Tape
recorders have six buttons. That’s one for eject, one for stopping,
one for starting, one for rewinding, one for foreword and one for
recording. There are three switches. One is for stereo and mono
(mode), and one is for tape, fm and am (function) and off and on
(monitor0. It also has a dial that puts it on different stations. The
stations are 2WS, 2 SW, 2JJJ,2UW,2EA,3EA,2UE,M.M.M and 2
GB. On tape recorders there are two wide speakers. Also there
are two volume dials. It as from ziro to ten. Our tape recorder is
a PYEsre4032. There is a place where you can attach your ear
phones to. In the back there is a little place where you can
put the batteries in (Martin, 1985).
Explanations
Note: Some reports do contain explanations
Sequence Explanation
Purpose: To sequence the phases of a process
To show how and why the phases occur in that order
Stages: Phenomenon identification which identifies what is
being
explained
Explanation sequence which described a chain of related
events
Model:
Evaporation
Evaporation occurs as part of the water cycle.
When air warms up in the sun and circulates above large bodies
of water such as oceans, the water on the surface of the
ocean is turned into water vapour and this water vapour rises.
The Water Cycle
The water cycle has four main phases: evaporation,
condensation, precipitation and run-off.
When air warms up in the sun and circulates above large bodies
of water such as ocean, the water on the surface of the ocean
is turned into water vapour and the water vapour rises. This is
called evaporation. As it rises the water vapour cools into tiny
drops of water. These drops condense as clouds. After
condensation, the water drops gradually become heavier.
When the water drops in the clouds become too heavy, they
precipitate or falls as rain, snow or hail. Rainwater runs off the
land into creeks and rivers. The run-off then goes into lakes,
seas and oceans (Source: Martin, 1985).
(A flow chart can be used to explain the sequence of a
phenomenon)
Consequential Explanation
Purpose: To explain reasons or consequences
Explanation of reasons or consequences explain one of two
things: the reasons for an outcome or the consequences of
an occurrence.
Stages of Consequential Explanation
Explanation of reasons
Outcome which:
• identifies the outcome
• Gives any necessary background
• Previews the reasons
Reasons which explains the reasons for the outcome by ordering the
reasons from the most important to the least important
Review which:
• Reviews the reasons
• Sometimes evaluates the reasons
Explanation of consequences
Occurrence which
• Identifies the occurrence
• Gives any necessary background
• Previews the consequences
Consequences which explains the
consequences for the occurrence by
ordering the consequences from the
most important to the least important
Review which:
• previews the consequences
• Sometimes evaluates the consequences
Snails have a shell on their back to
protect themselves from enemy. They
like to hide behind a rock and it
leaves a silvery track behind him. A
snail has a strong foot. They stick to
the ground fermelee (it should be
firmly) (Source: Martin, 1985).
A friend is important to me because if
you don’t have a friend you never play
(Source: Martin, 1985).
What were the main causes of the Great Depression?
(Source: Feez & Joyce, 1998)
The great Depression was an extremely serious economic downturn. It was felt all
over the world because the main causes of the depression can be traced back
to a world war. This war was World war I which lasted from 1914-1918.
One reason for the depression was that the countries who were fighting in World
War I invested everything they had in the equipment and weapons needed to
fight a war. When peace returned, these countries were not equipped to
manufacture the goods needed for peace and prosperity.
Another reason for the depression was that during the war countries like England,
the United States, France and Germany had to borrow a lot of money to keep
going. After the war they were not able to pay back these debts. This led to
inflation, high unemployment, economic and political instability.
Finally, groups of countries formed trading blocks which overpaid some countries
for their goods making it impossible for other countries to sell their goods. This
made world trade very unstable and unreliable.
In conclusion , it is clear that the great depression was largely caused by the cost
of World War I. These costs included the disruption to investment, the huge
debts of war and the formation of economically unhelpful alliances and
animosities.
What were the effects of the great the Great Depression? (Source:
Feez & Joyce, 1998)
The Great Depression had terrible consequences for the individuals who
live through it. It also left some very lasting effects on the whole
world.
One of the most important effects of the Depression was in Germany.
The german economy collapsed. During the economic chaos, Adolph
Hitler and the Nazis were able to rise to power.
Another major effect of the Depression was that England and the
United States excluded Japan from their trading partnership. As a
result, the Japanese became more aggressive towards the West.
Finally, in the United States the Depression forced the Federal
Government and the president, Franklin D Roosevelt, to intervene in
the economy in a way that had never happened before. This
economic intervention was called the New Deal.
Overall, the effects of the Depression were very unfortunate. It
ultimately led to the Second World war, even if the New Deal gave
Americans some hope for a short while.
• Exposition:
Schematic Structure:
• Thesis: Introduces the issue and the
writer’s point of view
• Arguments: Support the thesis
• Restatement of the thesis: a stronger
and more direct statement of the
thesis introduced in the first stage.
Sometimes exposition begins with a
background.
Hortatory Exposition: “Persuades to”
6L … Drive
Moreland 3066
Dear editor,
I am writing because of my concern over the fatalities caused through
the misuse of firearms. I feel all governments should pass firmer laws
on the control of firearms. Small firearms should only be issued under
license to responsible people such as policemen and security guards.
Large firearms should only be owned and used by gun clubs and their
members. This would cease the hunting and slaughter of our wildlife.
Recent examples of firearm accidents are – Ronald Reagan’s
attempted assacination, an innocent eighteen year old shot by an
angry boyfriend and a six year old boy killed while playing with a gun
at a friend’s house. The government are to afraid of losing their place
because of the communities opinion of firearms. Life is to precious to
be lost in this tragic way (Martin, 1985).
Analytical Exposition: “Persuades that”
The Perfect pet
The best pet in the world is a pet that you don’t have to feed, doesn’t
fidget and doesn’t make noises in the middle of the night. The pet that
fits all these categories is a pet rock! You never have to worry about it
dying because it was never alive in the first place. When you take your
pet rock for a walk you don’t have to worry about it fighting with
another rock. You don’t have to wash it or brush its fur. Pet rocks are
also good for weather predictions. If your rock is wet, you know it’s
raining. When it starts to fly its windy and when it shakes it must be an
earthquake. A pet rock will never run away, it doesn’t answer back and
if you don’t like the colour of the rock you can paint it again. The food
bill is very low for a pet rock for it will cost you nothing to feed. There
are two or three things your pet rock will not do. It will not fetch a ball
or stick, won’t beg for food, and can’t roll over for you to rub its
stomach. But it also never digs up the garden and doesn’t care if you
change its name. Pet rocks never catch a cold or get sunburnt. They
are very good for paper weights if they are heavy. Last but not least
they can be both indoor and outdoor pet (year 6, Source: Martin,
1985).
Exposition
The Government doesn’t concern about the country
(Source: Emilia, 2005)
Our country has been led by five presidents. Since the end of the
leadership of the second president, our country entered (has
entered) many crises. The most visible crises are economic
crisis and leadership crisis. After being led by Hobbies to
Megawati, our country hasn’t been able to go out from the
crises. Moreover, what those presidents did only showed that
they didn’t concern (weren’t concerned) about the country.
We are really in the crisis of leadership.We can see what our
latest president did that showed her ignorance.
In the new year’s eve, the husband of the president celebrated
his birthday with a very glamorous party in Bali. He invited his
friends and colleagues to the big party. For the guests whom
he invited to the party, he provided rooms in expensive hotels.
We can count the cost of the celebration without knowing the
exact figure. It might cost more than a hundred million rupiahs,
the amount that can help our country at least to reduce the
suffering of our country.
Another fact that shows President’s ignorance is her appearance in a
famous boy band concert. She and some members of her family
came to the concert of F4 from Taiwan. The ticket cost four million
rupiahs for VVIP, one million rupiahs for VIPand 250 thousand
rupiahs for the cheapest ticket. Her daughter, Pan Maharani, as
reported in (the) METRO, spent 200 million rupiahs to treat her
friends to come to the concert. We can imagine how much money
the president and the vice president spent for the concert.
The last fact that shows that the government doesn’t concern about the
country is the raising of price of three public commodities in one
time. Although the raising of telephone tariff was cancelled and the
new prices of fuel were revised, the government still insists on
raising the prices someday. The lower-middle class will still suffer
from this condition while the higher-middle class will perhaps not feel
any meaningful effect.
Those facts that I mentioned above show that the government doesn’t
concern about the country. There must be many ways the
government can do to show its concern to (with) the country’s
condition. If the president can’t spend her money to help this country
to reduce the debt at least she shouldn’t spend so much money in
front of the citizens of this country. What she did only showed that
our country is really in the crisis of leadership.
• Discussion
• Purpose: To discuss both sides of an
argument
• Schematic Structure:
An Issue: introduces the issue and
summarises the debate
Arguments for one side
Arguments for the other side
Recommendation or judgment which
is presented as the most logical
conclusion.
Discussion
Logging in Old-Growth Forests
Source: Feez & Joyce (1998b, p. 140)
One of the most controversial issues in our community is
whether old-growth forests should be logged. Some people
believe that it is vital for Australia’s rural economy to
continue logging in native forests. People on the other
side of the debate claim that logging will lead to the
destruction of Australia’s few remaining wilderness.
Supporters of the logging industry say that only 1% of old
growth trees are harvested and that all these trees are
replanted. This, they claim, brings new life to the forests. At
the same time they point out that logging brings employment
to rural communities. This is important at a time when
Australia’s country towns are dying as more and more people
move to the cities to find work.
On the other hand, there are a growing number of
people in the community who oppose logging. They
argue that logging destroys the habitat of a great
number of native animals and plants. The
consequence of this is the extinction of many
species. Furthermore they point out that forests are
vital to the environment because they absorb carbon
dioxide and produce oxygen.
Although logging supports rural communities, it also
threatens the environment. After looking at both
sides of this debate, I believe that new industries
should be developed for the rural sector and that we
should leave areas of untouched wilderness to be
preserved for future generations.
Should We Use Animals for Entertainment?
Source: Christie (2002, p. 62)
Statement of issue
“Should we use animals for entertainment” is the name of the
topic we’re talking about in this essay. Below I have stated
the positive and negative points for this issue.
Arguments for
In the report we read it said that in order to let a particular
species survive, we need to at least capture a few to show to
the public, to let them learn about the animals and then may
be the public would do something to help the endangered
animals. It said the animals are never tortured during training
or the performances and they are kept in very clean, natural
yards while not performing. At one stage it said that animals
are the core element of circuses and the statistics proved that
people like the animals best at the circus, therefore human
circuses would not meet the public demand. Most people
judge circuses on their old ways, not on the current, improved
ways.
Arguments against
But then on the other hand, animals like the elephants and bears are
very prone to stress so they make a habit of standing in one place
and rocking or swaying, which is bad for their joints and feet. Things
like constant traveling and performing in front of very large audiences
nearly every day affect this. They’re nearly always in confined spaces
and the biggest places they are ever in are the circus arena or tent,
which is also really small. The animals are not usually kept in their
natural habitat, which stops their basic instinct like fighting for mates,
building nests, hunting, etc, from being used to such a large extent
like they do in the wild. An alternative is to use humanism circuses
because they can’t exactly force people to join, they have to be
voluntary.
Recommendation
After looking at all these facts, I believe that it’s wrong for us to
keep animals in circuses for our entertainment. We should be
able to entertain ourselves, not rely on animals. For this reason,
and the one I have mentioned before, I believe it is wrong for us to
train and force animals to perform in circuses.
LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF A DISCUSSION GENRE
(Based on The work of the DSP, 1989; Derewienka, 1990; Christie,
2002).
Some language features of a discussion genre:Focus on generic
human and nonhuman participants, e.g. advertisements,
newspapers, many people, etc.Use of simple present tense.eg. are.
Have, is, promote, compete, saves, sells, take up, etc.Use of logical
conjunctive relations.eg. while, why, and, because, on the other
hand, firstly, also.Use of material, relational, and mental and verbal
processes.
Some saying verbs that are usually used in a discussion
genre:state, claim, argue, point out, point to ... , suggest, say,
observe, assert, contend, ... put it ..., reiterate, write, provides a
good example of ..., stresses that..., sees/ saw s.t as ... indicates,
represents, highlights, focus.., recommends, comment, inform,
discuss, maintain, believes.
Conjunctions used to set contrasts between what goes before and
what comes after (ways to introduce another point): however,
but, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the other side, In contrast,
On the reverse, In contrast to ... expert who assert the contrary are
..., on the opposite side, despite this, ultimately we must realize,
however, …
Ways to express arguments for:
The Miss Universe Contest/Abortion/Capital punishment, it’s
been said,In the ... we read, it is said.... As a (n).... said,
abortion/capital punishment/ the Miss Universe Contest ....
The proponents of ... claim ... positions Supporters of ..... say
...........The advocates of .... Those who are in favour of/defend
..... argue ...Abortionists .......; Those who argue for
abortion/capital punishment/the Miss Universe Contest...;
Supporting evidence for this viewpoint comes from ... The
most important work on this issue is the study by .... After
interviewing ( .....) she/he concluded ..... Believers in ...
regard... as .... For example, ..... .... strongly supports ..The
survey found out that..... favour abortion.The first argument
claimed by supporters of .... is related to/regards, is concerned
with, is to do with ...; The third position adopted by supporters
of ... is .., It is argued that ...; The argument for ... is that ...;
On one hand, some people agree that
Ways to express arguments against:Meanwhile, the
opponents of ... adopt three positions.... To begin, .....Those
who are against ... argue ....Strong arguments against ...
come from .... But then on the other hand, ......On the other
hand, there are a growing number of people in the
community who oppose ... The first reason for the argument
against ... stated by opponents of abortion is that .... It is
argued that ... On the other side some people say that ... On
the against side some people believe.... The argument
against abortion in Indonesia is that .... Some people think
that ...
Ways to sum up and to introduce recommendations:Thus,
in summary, … To sum up, …In summaryAfter looking at
both sides … I believe that …; ... should/ need /must .....
Therefore after examining all arguments …, it is
recommended that / it is important that ....The weight of
evidence would suggest …My point of view is …My
recommendation after looking at both sides ….It would
appear reasonable to conclude then …It would seem that …
Ways to write about cause and effect: As a consequence of
…An effect of … As result of …... led to .. ... resulted in …
Review
Purpose: to assess the value of a work (of literature or art)
Stages:
Context which tells us about the social situation in which the
characters abnd the actions are placed and gives a brief
summary of the text (a synopsis).
Text Descriptions which introduces the main characters and
describes key incidents: the reviewer usually tells the reader
a little a bout how caharacters interact with one another and
about incidents which are significant to the story.
Judgment where the reviewer makes a judgment of the text and
gives a recommendation.
Model (Source: Feez & Joyce, 1998)
The green Wind by Thurley Fowler is a novel about a girl
called Jennifer, who wants to be a writer and whose
only dream is to see her name in print. The novels
follow her through her last year of primary school and
her struggle to have her writing recognised. The book
is set in the late 1940s.
Jennifer is in her last year of primary school. She is a
clever girl but someone who loses her temper easily
and she can be cruel.
The novel tells us about Jennifer’s life with her family.
Jennifer father is a war veteran who is suffering from
shell-shock. He is a fruit farmer who cares a great deal
for his family but his oldest son, Richard is ashamed of
him. Jennifer’s mother is a tough, no-nonsense person
who the family thinks is heartless. They all find out
later in the novel that this is not true when the father
takes advantage of this.
Richard and Alexander are Jennifer’s brothers. Richard is a normal kid
who contracts diphteria but recovers. On the other hand Alexander is
a mysterius child who loves animals but is not very tough. Every time
an animal dies he cries.
Jennifer’s main ambition is to be a writer, and the key incident in the
book is when another character, Raymond Bradley, asks Jennifer to
write a story. She calls the story “The Green Wind” which gives the
novel its name.
Raymond Bradley is a high-school student in Margaret’s class. He is
interested in Jennifer’s poems and Jennifer pretends to be Raymonb
Brdley’s girlfriend to make her sister jealous.
I feel this book is best suited for the 10 to 15 age group. There are
many incidents in the book which are sad and funny at the same
time. The characters are beleveable for the late 40s when the book is
set.
If you don’t mind a slow-moving story, then there will be something in
this book for you. However, if you like a fast-moving story with lots of
action then I’d give this one a miss.
Linguistic Features:
The text, book, novel is about …
The main character, main idea …
The book/novel is set in …
Nouns; Book, characters, author, novel,
ending , etc.
Evaluation Words:
Effective, slow-movong story,
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Words or Expressions that may be used in writing a recount about ill/sickness.
Saya sakit minggu lalu: I was sick/ill last week.
Sakit kepala: I had a head ache. Perutku/gigiku sakit: My stomach/tooth was aching.
Tifus: Typhoid : My sister suffered from typhoid. I had typhoid.
Tifus penyakit yang berbahaya: Typhoid is a very dangerous disease.
Sakit panas: I had a temperature/ a fever
Panasnya 40 derajat Celcius: Her temperature was 40 degrees Celcius.
Adik saya 7 tahun: My younger brother is/was 7 years old.
Dokter memeriksa: A doctor / The doctor (Kalau kata dokter sudah disebutkan
sebelumnya) examined my mother.
Kakak saya diobati: My brother had a medical treatment/wasmedically treated.
Dirawat di rumah sakit … : I was in hospital for five days/ I was hospitalized/ I
stayed in hospital (Kata hospital jangan pakai “the”, kalau pakai the, seperti dalam “I
was in the hospital for five days” berarti di rumah sakit bukan karena sakit, tapi mungkin
karena alasan lain”.
Ungkapan lain yang ada perbedaan antara pakai the dan tidak adalah:
I went to school = ke sekolah untuk belajar; to the school: ke sekolah untuk main; I
went to mosque= ke mesjid untuk sholat; to the mosque: Ke mesjid untuk hal lain
Kakak saya harus dirawat: My brother must be hospitalized. Must stay in hospital./.
Had to stay/ had to be hospitalized
Dokter berkata kepada ibu saya bahwa kakak saya harus dirawat: The doctor
suggested/said to my mother (told my mother, told tidak pakai to) that my
brother/sister had to stay in hospital/had to be hospitalized.
Orang tua saya khawatir dengan … : My parents were really worried about his illness;
Orang tua saya panik: My parents panicked.
Adik saya tidak mau minum obat: My little/ younger brother/sister did not want to take
the medicine (Ingat, to +V1).
Saya terluka/mengalami luka-luka: I was injured/ I was wounded.
… Saya Luka berat: I was badly injured/seriously injured
• Luka saya diobati: My injury/wound was treated/cured.
• Perlahan-lahan adik saya sembuh: Gradually/ step by
step my sister recovered from his/her illness.
• Masa penyembuhannya tidak lama: the recovery
stage was not long/ did not take a long time.
• Kakak saya boleh pulang dari rumah sakit: My brother
was dismissed from the hospital/ could go home.
• Saya berobat jalan: I became an outpatient/ I had an
outpatient treatment.
• Adik saya dibawa ke rumah sakit dengan ambulans: My
brother was brought hospital by an ambulance
• Saya berharap dia cepat sembuh: I hope he will
recover from his illness/ will feel better soon.
• Saya berdoa mudah-mudahan dia cepat sembuh: I
prayed for him/her that he/she would recover/would
feel better/would get better soon.
• Adik saya sehat sekarang: My little brother/sister is well
now/ feels better now.
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A Fishing Adventure
Stan and Alex were on holiday. One day they rowed a small boat into the sea and started
to fish. They caught one fish , two fish, three fat fish. They were very happy.
Suddenly, the wind blew their boat onto some rocks. Water came into the boat. The boat
was sinking!
Stan and Alex held on to their boat and paddled with their legs. They pushed the boat
back to the beach. They rested on the beach.
Later, when they looked into the boat, they saw that it was empty! All the fish had swum
away! (Source:Ling & Smith 2006)
POST CARDS
31st May 2006Dear Tom, We went to the beach yesterday. It was very hot. We built a big
sandcastle!From, DanielTom Smith15 De Carle StreetBunswick, Victioria, Australia3014
31st May 2006Dear Tom, I flew to Yogyakarta in an aeroplane to visit my grandmother.We
went shopping yesterday. It was great fun!
From,
JoeyJoey
Brown15 De Carle StreetBunswick, Victioria, Australia3014
DIARY
Friday 15th January 2007
It is the school holidays this week. So far, I have done lots of things.
On Monday morning, I met Rina at he park. We went skating. In the afternoon we went for
a “Stories and Craft’ session at the library.
On Tuesday afternoon, I went to the movie with my cousins. We saw Harry Potter. My
favourit character is Harry. I think he is great.
On Wednesday, Grandma and I went to the zoo. We had a lot of fun. We ate a picnic
lunch.
On Thursday morning, Mum and I went shopping for my new school shoes. In the
evening, I went to a Brownies meeting from 5.30 p.m-7 p.m.
Oh no! I have not done my Maths and English homework. I will need to do that tomorrow.
After that I can play with my new computer game, Into Space (Source: Ling & Smith,
2006)
Friday, 22 January 2007
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Yesterday we went to Pangandaran. It was very hot there. So, we drove to the
beach.
It was very hot on the sand too. We drank lots of water and we swam in the sea to
keep cool.
Then, we played on the wet sand. Mum brought a picnic lunch for us. We sat under
a beach umbrella to eat it.
After lunch dad lied down and he went to sleep.
After several hours in the beach we went o the hotel to stay overnight there.
On the following day, Sunday we went back to Bandung by car (Adapted from Ling &
Smith, 2006).
Expressions/Words that may be used in writing a recount text on recreation
My family and I went to a shopping centre.
We took the bus there. We liked the shops.
We went to Ayer Island in Jakarta.
We went by ferry. Then we walked a long the beach.
My family went camping at the beach.
We drove there in our car. It was fun.
We flew to Padang. We had a great time.
I did … on my last holiday.
I saw the birds at the park.
I rode my bicycle in the garden.
I went to the beach, I went swimming, I went shopping, I went camping, I went on a
picnic
I visited …, I had never been to … before.
In the zoo, I petted a monkey, a rabbit, a … .
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They took a ferry past … the …
Pilot, tickets, passport, camera, suitcase, trolley
We went to the airport by train, We went to the station by …
We gave our ticket to a ticketing officer.
We saw the pilot of our plane.
When the plane flew up in the sky, I was excited
We took a plane to Jakarta.
Dad drove a car into the country (ayah menyetir mobil di daerah pedesaan)
We walked over some hills (kami berjalan menyusuri bukit)
It was windy on the hilltops (Di puncak bukit angina bertiup).
I carry my clothes in my suitcase.
I need a passport to travel to another country.
I used a camera to take photographs.
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Decide how you would say all the following expressions/sentences in English
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Liburan yang lalu kami ke Jakarta naik pesawat.
Saya pergi berlibur ke Yogyakarta selama satu minggu, saya pergi ke sana dengan kereta api.
Ayah mengantar saya ke statsiun dengan mobil.
Di stasiun saya harus mengantri untuk mendapatkan karcis.
Di Yogyakarta saya pergi ke pantai dan berenang di sana.
Saya memotret banyak tempat di Yogyakarta.
Do Yogyakarta saya merasa senang sekali.
Saya sangat menikmati liburan saya di Yogyakarta.
Di Yogyakarta saya mengunjungi Borobudur dan Keraton Yogyakarta.
Minggu lalu saya dan keluarga pergi ke Lampung.
Kami naik ferry dari Merak sampai Bakauhuni.
Di laut angin bertiup sangat kencang.
Kami mengambil banyak gambar pemandangan di Yogyakarta.
Pemandangannya sangat indah.
Saya sangat menikmati liburan saya di Yogyakarta.
Kami berjalan menyusuri pantai.
Keluarga saya mengadakan camping di pantai.
Ayah menyetir mobil ke sana.
Di sekitar pantai ada banyak taman yang ditanami bunga yang indah.
Kami juga naik sepeda di taman.
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More Examples from Students
Hallo, my name is Andi Rosada (Pseudonym).
My nickk name is Andi. I was born in
Bandung. I am thirteen years old. I live in
Jalan Kaum No. 74 dayeh Kolot. My
telephonme number is 5211244. I want to
tell you about my experience.
Last school holiday my family and I went to
Yogyakarta . I was very excited because I
had never been to Yogyakarta before. Early
in the morning we had been ready to go. My
father drove a car to Yogyakarta…
It was four year ago when I was at 5th
grade. My school was made a trip to
the Dufan for school trip. I was very
happy, then I told to my parents about
the school trip. But when I told about
that, my parents didn’t allowed me to. I
was wondered, but then they said my
granny was sicked. She suffered from
“apendicitist” and must got operated
soon. I’a shocked. Although I ‘m very
wanted to went along I was obeyed
them.