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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
The Symbolic Nature of Culture
• The Symbolic Nature of Culture
• The Origin of Language
• Language
• Language and Perception
• Symbols and Nature
• Gestures
• Values
• Norms
• Sanctions
• Folkways and Mores
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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
The Symbolic Nature of Culture
• A symbol is any object, typically material, which is meant to represent another
(usually abstract), even if there is no meaningful relationship.
• Culture is based on a shared set of symbols and meanings.Symbolic culture
enables human communication and must be taught.
• Symbolic culture is more malleable and adaptable than biological evolution.
• The belief that culture is symbolically coded and can be taught from one person to
another means that cultures, although bounded, can change.
• According to sociologists, symbols make up one of the 5 key elements of culture;
the other key elements are language, values, beliefs, and norms.
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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
The Origin of Language
• There is no consensus on the ultimate origin or age of human language.
• Continuity-based theories stress that language is so complex that it must have
evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among pre-humans.
• Discontinuity-based theories stress that language is a unique human trait that
appeared fairly suddenly in the transition from pre-hominids to early man.
Language in daily life
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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
Language
• The word "language" has at least two basic meanings: language as a general
concept, and "a language" (a specific linguistic system, e.g. "French"), a
distinction first made by Ferdinand de Saussure.
• Languages, understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular
community, are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speak them.
• Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group and
difference from others.
• The organic definition of language sees language primarily as the mental faculty
that allows humans to undertake linguistic behavior--to learn languages and
A Bilingual Sign
produce and understand utterances.
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• The structuralist view of language sees language as a formal system of signs
governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning.
• The functional theory of language sees language as a system of communication
that enables humans to cooperate.
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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
• Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group and difference from others.
• The organic definition of language sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic
behaviour: to learn languages and produce and understand utterances.These kinds of definitions are often applied by studies
of language within a cognitive science framework and in neurolinguistics.
• The structuralist view of language sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to
communicate meaning.This definition stresses the fact that human languages can be described as closed structural systems
consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings.
• The functional theory of language sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to cooperate.This
definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate
objects in their environment.
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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
Language and Perception
• The principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects
the ways in which its speakers conceptualize their world (i.e., world view), or
otherwise influences their cognitive processes.
• A main point of debate in the discussion of linguistic relativity is the strength of
correlation between language and thought.The strongest form of correlation is
linguistic determinism, which holds that language entirely determines an
individual's range of possible cognitive processes.
• The hypothesis of linguistic determinism is now generally agreed to be false,
although many researchers still study weaker forms of correlation, often producing
positive empirical evidence for a correlation.
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• The crucial question is whether human psychological faculties are mostly
universal and innate, or whether they are mostly a result of learning, and,
therefore, subject to cultural and social processes that vary between places and
times.
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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
Symbols and Nature
• Human language is thought to be fundamentally different from and of much higher
complexity than that of other species as it is based on a complex system of rules
that result in an indefinite number of possible utterances from a finite number of
elements.
• Written languages use visual symbols to represent the sounds of the spoken
languages, but they still require syntactic rules that govern the production of
meaning from sequences of words.
• Human language differs from communication used by animals because the
symbols and grammatical rules of any particular language are largely arbitrary, so
that the system can only be acquired through social interaction.
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• The study of how signs and meanings are combined, used, and interpreted is
called semiotics.
• Signs can be composed of sounds, gestures, letters, or symbols, depending on
whether the language is spoken, signed, or written.
• Language is traditionally seen as consisting of three parts: signs, meanings, and a
code connecting signs with their meanings.
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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
Gestures
• Gestures allow individuals to communicate a variety of feelings and thoughts,
from contempt and hostility to approval and affection, often together with body
language in addition to spoken words.
• The most familiar categories of gestures are the so-called emblems or quotable
gestures.These are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as
replacement for words, such as the handwave used in the U.S. for "hello" and
"goodbye".
• Another broad category of gestures comprises those gestures used
spontaneously when we speak.These gestures are closely coordinated with
speech.
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• Gestural languages such as American Sign Language and its regional siblings
operate as complete natural languages that are gestural in modality.
• Gesturing is probably universal; there have been no reports of communities that
do not gesture.Gestures are a crucial part of everyday conversation such as
chatting, describing a route, or negotiating prices on a market.
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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
Values
• The values of a society can often be identified by noting which people receive
honor or respect.
• Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract
than norms.
• Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what
should be judged as good or evil.
• Members take part in a culture even if each member's personal values do not
entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in the culture.
• Values clarification is helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is
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worth working for.
• Cognitive moral education is based on the belief that students should learn to
value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops.
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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
Norms
• Norms can be defined as the shared ways of thinking, feeling, desiring, deciding,
and acting which are observable in regularly repeated behaviours and are
adopted because they are assumed to solve problems.
• Social norms are neither static nor universal; they change with respect to time and
vary with respect to culture, social classes, and social groups.
• Social norms can be enforced formally (e.g., through sanctions) or informally
(e.g., through body language and non-verbal communication cues).
• One form of norm adoption is the formal method, where norms are written down
and formally adopted.However, social norms are more likely to be informal and
Formal Sanctions
emerge gradually (e.g., not wearing socks with sandals).
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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
Sanctions
• Sanctions can either be positive (rewards) or negative (punishment).
• Sanctions can arise from either formal or informal control.
• With informal sanctions, ridicule or ostracism can realign a straying individual
towards norms.Informal sanctions may include shame, ridicule, sarcasm,
criticism, and disapproval.
• Groups, organizations, and societies of various kinds can promulgate rules that
act as formal sanctions to reward or punish behavior. For example, government
and organizations use law enforcement mechanisms and other formal sanctions
such as fines and imprisonment.
• To maintain control and regulate their subjects, authoritarian organizations and
Formal and Informal Sanctions
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governments use severe sanctions such as censorship, expulsion, and limits on
political freedom.
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Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture
Folkways and Mores
• Societal norms, or rules that are enforced by members of a community, can exist
as both formal and informal rules of behavior.Informal norms can be divided into
two distinct groups: folkways and mores.
• Both "mores" and "folkways" are terms coined by the American sociologist William
Graham Sumner.
• Mores distinguish the difference between right and wrong, while folkways draw a
line between right and rude.While folkways may raise an eyebrow if violated,
mores dictate morality and come with heavy consequences.
William Graham Sumner, 1840-1910
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Appendix
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Culture and Socialization
Key terms
• culture The beliefs, values, behavior, and material objects that constitute a people's way of life.
• folkway A custom or belief common to members of a society or culture.
• gestural languages A gestural language is a language which, instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns, uses manual
communication and body language to convey meaning.This can involve simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation
and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to fluidly express a speaker's thoughts.
• gesture A motion of the limbs or body, especially one made to emphasize speech.
• human language Human language is typically used for communication, and may be spoken, signed, or written.
• Informal sanctions These are the reactions of individuals and groups that bring about conformity to norms and laws.These can
include peer and community pressure, bystander intervention in a crime, and collective responses such as citizen patrol groups.
• language A form of communication using words either spoken or gestured with the hands and structured with grammar, often
with a writing system.
• linguistics The scientific study of language.
• Max Weber (1864–1920) A German sociologist, philosopher, and political economist who profoundly influenced social theory,
social research, and the discipline of sociology itself.
• mores A set of moral norms or customs derived from generally accepted practices.Mores derive from the established practices
of a society rather than its written laws.
• norm A rule that is enforced by members of a community.
• Perception (cognition) That which is detected by the five senses; not necessarily understood (imagine looking through fog,
trying to understand if you see a small dog or a cat); also that which is detected within consciousness as a thought, intuition,
deduction, etc.
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Culture and Socialization
• prehistory The history of human culture prior to written records.
• quotable gestures Quotable gestures are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words.
• relativity The state of being relative to something else.
• sanction a penalty, or some coercive measure, intended to ensure compliance; especially one adopted by several nations, or
by an international body
• semiotics The study of signs and symbols, especially as means of language or communication.
• semiotics The study of signs and symbols, especially as means of language or communication.
• social classes Social class (or simply "class") is a set of concepts in the social sciences and political theory centered on models
of social stratification in which people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories.
• social control any control, either formal or informal, that is exerted by a group, especially by one's peers
• social group A collection of humans or animals that share certain characteristics, interact with one another, accept expectations
and obligations as members of the group, and share a common identity.
• social norms Social norms are described by sociologists as being laws that govern society's behaviors.
• subculture A portion of a culture distinguished from the larger society around it by its customs or other features.
• symbol Any object, typically material, which is meant to represent another (usually abstract), even if there is no meaningful
relationship.
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Culture and Socialization
• symbolic Referring to something with an implicit meaning.
• William Graham Sumner An American academic with numerous books and essays on American history, economic history,
political theory, sociology, and anthropology.
• written language A written language is the representation of a language by means of a writing system.
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Culture and Socialization
On Language and Perception
Cognition and Communication Research Centre film describing recent research on the mapping between language and perception, and whether the
language one speaks affects how one thinks.
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Culture and Socialization
Edward Sapir
Empirical research into the question of linguistic relativity has been associated mainly with the names of Benjamin Lee Whorf, who wrote on the topic in
the 1930s, and his mentor Edward Sapir, who did not himself write extensively on the topic.
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Culture and Socialization
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that language shapes the way we see the world.
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Culture and Socialization
Formal Sanctions
Norms may be enforced through informal sanctions, such as derision, or formal sanctions, such as arrest.
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Culture and Socialization
Same-Sex Marriage and Social Norms
In most Western countries, norms have prohibited same-sex marriage, but those norms are now changing.
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Culture and Socialization
Social Norms of Personal Space
Students demonstrate social norms of personal space by violating the norms.This type of experiment is called a breaching experiment.
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Culture and Socialization
A Bilingual Sign
Members of a culture usually share a common language.Here, a bilingual sign in Wales tells both English and Welsh speakers that smoking is
prohibited.
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Culture and Socialization
Speaking in Tongues: The History of Language - Episode # 1 Let There Be Words
Where and when was language invented?No one knows for sure.
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Culture and Socialization
Origin of Language
Skull of Homo Neanderthalensis discovered in La Chapelle Aux Saints, France.It is unknown whether Neanderthal humans had language.
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Culture and Socialization
Language in daily life
The origin of language in the human species is a widely discussed topic.
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Flickr. "Sign in to Yahoo." CC BY http://www.flickr.com/photos/shehal/1187646003/in/photostream/ View on Boundless.com
Culture and Socialization
William Graham Sumner, 1840-1910
William Graham Sumner coined the terms "folkways" and "mores."
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Culture and Socialization
Can Parrots Really Talk?
Parrots mimic the sounds of human language, but have they really learned the symbolic system?
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Culture and Socialization
A Barking Dog
Animal sounds, like a dog's bark, may serve basic communication functions, but they lack the symbolic elements of human language.
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Culture and Socialization
A Sentence Diagram
Human language's grammatical structure makes it unique.
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Culture and Socialization
Gestural Language
American Sign Language, or ASL, is a gestural language.This is how to sign the letters A-S-L.
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Culture and Socialization
Hand Gestures
Military air marshallers use hand and body gestures to direct flight operations aboard aircraft carriers.
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Culture and Socialization
Pointing
Pointing at another person with an extended finger is considered rude in many cultures.
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Culture and Socialization
Declaration of Independence
Independence and freedom are fundamental values in the U.S.
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Culture and Socialization
Punks as non-conformists
Members of the punk movement refused to conform to some of the normative values prevalent in Western culture.
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Culture and Socialization
The Liberty Bell
Many consider liberty to be a fundamental American value.
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Culture and Socialization
Punk
Punk social groups are often considered marginal and are excluded from certain mainstream social spaces.
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Culture and Socialization
The Polish Alphabets
Cultures are shared systems of symbols and meanings.Alphabets are one example of a symbolic element of culture.
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Culture and Socialization
Formal and Informal Sanctions
Societies use formal and informal sanctions to enforce norms.
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Culture and Socialization
Shame
Shame can be used as a type of informal sanction.
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Culture and Socialization
A Prison Cell Block
Incarceration is a type of formal sanction.
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Culture and Socialization
A nation's flag is:
A) a value
B) a symbol
C) a culture
D) a folkway
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Culture and Socialization
A nation's flag is:
A) a value
B) a symbol
C) a culture
D) a folkway
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Culture and Socialization
"Since these symbolic systems were learned and taught, they
began to develop independently of biological evolution."Which of
the following is an implication of this statement?
A) Human culture has developed independently of and is unrelated to
human evolution
B) One human being can learn a belief, value from another, even if they
are not biologically related
C) One human being can only learn from another if they share a common
DNA
D) The capacity for symbolic thinking is universal but unrelated to human
evolution
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Culture and Socialization
"Since these symbolic systems were learned and taught, they
began to develop independently of biological evolution."Which of
the following is an implication of this statement?
A) Human culture has developed independently of and is unrelated to
human evolution
B) One human being can learn a belief, value from another, even if they
are not biologically related
C) One human being can only learn from another if they share a common
DNA
D) The capacity for symbolic thinking is universal but unrelated to human
evolution
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Culture and Socialization
Continuity-based theories are based on all of the following
assumptions EXCEPT
A) There is no empirical evidence for the origin of language
B) Language evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems
C) Language is so complex that it could not have appeared suddenly
D) It might be possible to find traces of pre-human languages in animals
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Culture and Socialization
Continuity-based theories are based on all of the following
assumptions EXCEPT
A) There is no empirical evidence for the origin of language
B) Language evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems
C) Language is so complex that it could not have appeared suddenly
D) It might be possible to find traces of pre-human languages in animals
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Culture and Socialization
"Language is a system of symbolic communication consisting of
signs, meanings and a code that connects signs with their
meanings."This definition of language is common in the field of
A) neurolinguistics
B) semiotics
C) cognitive science
D) natural languages
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Culture and Socialization
"Language is a system of symbolic communication consisting of
signs, meanings and a code that connects signs with their
meanings."This definition of language is common in the field of
A) neurolinguistics
B) semiotics
C) cognitive science
D) natural languages
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Culture and Socialization
The idea that language determines thought is a defining feature of
A) the weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
B) the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
C) the universalist view on the relation between language and thought
D) the idealist view on the relation between language and thought
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Culture and Socialization
The idea that language determines thought is a defining feature of
A) the weak version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
B) the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
C) the universalist view on the relation between language and thought
D) the idealist view on the relation between language and thought
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Culture and Socialization
The notion that people cannot feel or experience something that
they do not have a word for can be explained by:
A) linguistics
B) Sapir-Whorf
C) ethnographic imagery
D) bilingualism
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Culture and Socialization
The notion that people cannot feel or experience something that
they do not have a word for can be explained by:
A) linguistics
B) Sapir-Whorf
C) ethnographic imagery
D) bilingualism
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Saylor OER. "Electives « Saylor.org – Free Online Courses Built by Professors." CC BY 3.0
http://www.saylor.org/majors/Electives/
Culture and Socialization
"Emblems" or "quotable gestures" can be defined as
A) gestures that can be used as replacement for words
B) gestures that are used spontaneously when we speak
C) gestures that are used to initiate a mating ritual
D) gestures that do not communicate specific messages
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Culture and Socialization
"Emblems" or "quotable gestures" can be defined as
A) gestures that can be used as replacement for words
B) gestures that are used spontaneously when we speak
C) gestures that are used to initiate a mating ritual
D) gestures that do not communicate specific messages
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Culture and Socialization
Which of the following is NOT true for the relationship between
values and norms?
A) Values and norms are related
B) Values are more abstract than norms
C) Values are more common than norms
D) Norms often reflect values
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Culture and Socialization
Which of the following is NOT true for the relationship between
values and norms?
A) Values and norms are related
B) Values are more abstract than norms
C) Values are more common than norms
D) Norms often reflect values
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Culture and Socialization
Laws are social norms that have been
A) informally adopted
B) formally adopted
C) internalized
D) externalized
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Culture and Socialization
Laws are social norms that have been
A) informally adopted
B) formally adopted
C) internalized
D) externalized
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Culture and Socialization
Which of the following is NOT true for social norms?
A) Social norms are implicit or explicit rules specifying acceptable
behaviors
B) By ignoring or breaking social norms, one risks facing formal or
informal sanctions
C) Groups internalize social norms by accepting them as reasonable
standards for behavior
D) Social norms are universally valid sets of rules that only change
gradually
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Culture and Socialization
Which of the following is NOT true for social norms?
A) Social norms are implicit or explicit rules specifying acceptable
behaviors
B) By ignoring or breaking social norms, one risks facing formal or
informal sanctions
C) Groups internalize social norms by accepting them as reasonable
standards for behavior
D) Social norms are universally valid sets of rules that only change
gradually
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Culture and Socialization
Any control, either formal or informal, that is exerted by a group,
especially by one's peers
A) status quo
B) political Zionism
C) supernatural
D) social control
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Culture and Socialization
Any control, either formal or informal, that is exerted by a group,
especially by one's peers
A) status quo
B) political Zionism
C) supernatural
D) social control
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Culture and Socialization
Cultural sanctions can also be viewed as ways that society:
A) regulates behavior
B) establishes leaders
C) determines language
D) determines laws
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Culture and Socialization
Cultural sanctions can also be viewed as ways that society:
A) regulates behavior
B) establishes leaders
C) determines language
D) determines laws
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Saylor OER. "Electives « Saylor.org – Free Online Courses Built by Professors." CC BY 3.0 http://www.saylor.org/majors/Electives/
Culture and Socialization
Which of the following does NOT count as informal social
sanctioning?
A) Public ridicule
B) Social exclusion
C) Imprisonment by the government
D) Peer ostracism
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Culture and Socialization
Which of the following does NOT count as informal social
sanctioning?
A) Public ridicule
B) Social exclusion
C) Imprisonment by the government
D) Peer ostracism
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Culture and Socialization
The biggest difference between mores and folkways is that
A) mores are absolute, whereas folkways are temporary
B) mores refer to material culture, whereas folkways refer to nonmaterial
culture
C) mores refer to nonmaterial culture, whereas folkways refer to material
culture
D) mores are primarily linked to morality, whereas folkways are primarily
linked to being commonplace within a culture
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Culture and Socialization
The biggest difference between mores and folkways is that
A) mores are absolute, whereas folkways are temporary
B) mores refer to material culture, whereas folkways refer to nonmaterial
culture
C) mores refer to nonmaterial culture, whereas folkways refer to material
culture
D) mores are primarily linked to morality, whereas folkways are primarily
linked to being commonplace within a culture
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Saylor OER. "Electives « Saylor.org – Free Online Courses Built by Professors." CC BY 3.0 http://www.saylor.org/majors/Electives/
Culture and Socialization
William Graham Sumner's definition of "mores" includes all of the
following EXCEPT
A) Mores are norms that are enforced by members of a community
B) Mores are informal rules of behavior
C) Mores are widely observed norms
D) Mores dictate what is considered polite behavior
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Culture and Socialization
William Graham Sumner's definition of "mores" includes all of the
following EXCEPT
A) Mores are norms that are enforced by members of a community
B) Mores are informal rules of behavior
C) Mores are widely observed norms
D) Mores dictate what is considered polite behavior
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Culture and Socialization
Attribution
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Culture and Socialization
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Culture and Socialization
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