兩岸政治參與
高永光老師
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Contacting Officials
• Contacting an official is very specific
as to situation and time; a person
contacts a governmental official out of
concern about a given narrow issue
that affects him or her directly--school
taxes, road work, social security
check, and so forth.
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• Only a small fraction of the
American citizenry (about 6%)
fall into this category, but the
percentage was considerably
higher in some of the other
countries studied; the
Netherlands showed the
highest at 38%.
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Protestors
• Protesting tends to be engaged in more
frequently by persons in minority status
such as blacks, students, and women.
Among American blacks, for example,
there is a positive correlation between
protesting and being patriotic.
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Communicators
• “Keep informed about politics," "send
messages of support to political leaders
when they are doing well," "send protest
messages to political leaders when they
are doing badly," "engage in political
dis c us s i on . " " infor m others i n my
community about politics." "make my
views known to public officials," "write
letters to the editors of newspapers."
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• A communicative mode of relationship
between the individual and the polity
seems to require a high education, a high
level of information about politics, and a
high level of interest in politics. The modes
of relationship between individuals and the
polity are summarized in Figure 1. The
modes or styles for making inputs to the
political system are somewhat related to
the beliefs that people hold about what the
government should do for them.
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• Figure 2 shows a sketch combining
the general dimension of political
involvement with the several modes
of activity. Activists are of different
types: communicators community
activists, party and campaign
workers, and protestors.
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INP’’TS
MODES
ACTIVE
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PROTESTORS
OUTTAKE POSTURE
DEFINING ITEMS
Join in public street demonstrations (3%)
Riot it necessary (2%)
Protest vigorously if government does
something morally wrong (26%)
Attend protest meetings (6%)
Refuse to obey unjust laws (16%)
(They are also active on other modes.)
Demand very active
government;
particularly protect
civil rights and provide
economic
opportunities
COMMUNITY
ACTIVITS
Work with others on local problems (30%)
Form a group to work on local problems
(14%)
Active membership in community
organizations (8%)
Contact officials on social issues (14%)
(They also vote fairly regularly.)
Use Voluntary
community activity
rather than
government to
provide welfare
No particular outtake
posture
PARTY AND
CAMPAIGN
WORKERS
Actively work for party or candidate (26%)
Persuade others how to vote (28%)
Attend meetings, rallies (19%)
Give money to party or candidate (13%)
Join and support political party (35%)
Be a candidate for office (3%)
(They also vote regularly.)
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INP’’TS
Keep informed about politics (67%)
Engage in political discussion (42%)
Write letters to newspaper editors
(9%)
Send support or protest messages
to political leaders (15%)
(They also vote fairly regularly.)
Observe, discuss, and
criticize governmental
performance; watching
posture
CONTACT
SPECILISTS
Contact local, state, and national
officials on particularized problems
(4%)
(They are inactive otherwise.)
Seek special response
to personal needs rather
than general social
conditions
PASSIVE
SUPPORTIVE
VOTERS AND
PATRIOTS
Vote regularly in elections (63%)
Love my country (94%)
Show patriotism by flying the flag,
attending parades, etc. (70%)
Pay all taxes (94%)
Conventional Limited
Government
Provide public order,
security, leadership,
justice
APATHETIC
INACTIVE
No voting, no other activity (22%)
No patriotic inputs (3.5%)
ACTIVE
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OUTTAKE POSTURE
COMMUNICATORS
Figure1: Modes relating individuals to the policy. Percentages for the party and
campaign workers mode are based mostly on a national survey conducted in
1967 (Verba & Nie, 1972); percentages for the remaining modes are based on
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the Buffalo Survey (1968).
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Factors Antecedent to Behavior
• Every decision to act, or not to act, is
affected by a person's immediate
environment, particularly the stimuli that
are present in that environment. The
decision to participate or not is also directly
affected by the attitudes, beliefs, and
personality trails of citizens. These life
position factors are generally identified and
measured by such familiar variables as
education, income, age, race, and so forth.
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Political Participation as a
Function of Stimuli
• The more stimuli about politics a person
receives, the greater the likelihood that he
or she will participate in politics and the
greater the depth of that participation. A
related proposition is that persons with
strong preferences for a party or candidate
pick up more political stimuli than those
with weak preferences.
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Political participation as a
Function of Personal Factors
• Three personal factors
have been related by
research to political
participation; attitudes,
beliefs, and personality
traits.
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Participation as a Function of
Attitudes and Beliefs
• One's belief system is generally larger
than one's value system.
• Beliefs, and the cognitions which underlie
both beliefs and attitudes, have not been
widely researched in political-behavior
studies.
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Psychological Involvement
• Psychological involvement refers to the
degree to which citizens are interested in
and concerned about politics and public
affairs.
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Sense of Civic Obligation
• A sense of obligation to participate in
politics is another important political
attitude that relates to participation.
Feeling a duty to participate carries over
strongly to political actions; several studies
show that persons feeling a duty to
participate in politics are more likely to do
so.
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Party Identification
• Much research has shown that the
strength of party identification is important
for explaining levels of political activity.
• Party identification represents a long-term
force in contrast to candidate and issue
preferences, which are short-term forces
(Campbell el al., 1960).
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Group Identification
• Identification with a group is similar to
party identification. Group identification is
a sense of belonging, together with an
awareness of the salience of the group.
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Political Efficacy Feelings
• Political efficacy is the feeling that one is
capable of influencing the public decisionmaking process. A person who believes
that he or she can influence government
officials or public issues is said to be
subjectively efficacious or competent.
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Alienation, Cynicism, Distrust
• It is not easy to define alienation; the
difficulty stems from the fact that it is an
extremely fashionable concept loosely
used to refer to all sorts of negative
attitudes about society in general and the
political system in particular. Political
alienation will be defined here as deep
seated and relatively enduring feelings of
estrangement, rejection, negativism, and
unhappiness with the political system.
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Participation as a Function of
Personality
• The impact of personality on political
participation is often more latent than
manifest; it can come forth strongly in
some situations and have almost no
influence in others
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Sociability and Extraversion
• ociability is defined here as a feeling of
ease and graciousness in social
relationships; normally, it is accompanied
by the possession of effective social skills.
Some research has shown that people
with sociable personalities are more likely
to enter politics and also to take leading
roles once they enter it. Participation in
social groups is highly correlated with
political participation.
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Dominance, Manipulativeness,
and Power Drive
• It is often supposed that individuals with a
personal need for status and power over
others naturally gravitate to politics to fulfill
their craving.
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Political Participation as a
Function of Social Position
• The greatest quantity of research on
political participation has related political
behavior to social-position variables.
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Socioeconomic Status (SES)
or Class
• Socioeconomic status is generally
conceived as having three components:
education, income, and occupation. These
three components are themselves highly
intercorrelated, but they are sufficiently
different to warrant measuring them
separately and then combining them in a
single "objective" index of class or status.
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• Research has shown that the correlation
between SES and participation is higher in
India and the United States than it is in
such other countries as Germany, The
Netherlands, Austria, and Japan.
Economic modernization is a potent, if
slow, force affecting political patterns.
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• Studies in Norway and Japan show that as
patterns of employment shifted from
largely primary economic activities (fishing,
agriculture, forestry) to secondary
(manufacturing) and tertiary (services)
ones, more and more persons who had
formerly stayed outside the political
process were mobilized into the electorate .
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Place of Residence
• Much political participation research has
related place of residence to participation
levels. Many of the earlier studies showed
that rural dwellers were less likely to
become active in politics than city dwellers.
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Organizational Involvement
• Many studies have shown that those who
are organizationally involved participate in
politics at rates far greater than citizens
who are not so involved. The effects of
social participation on political participation
are cumulative. The greater the number of
one's affiliations, the greater the likelihood
of one's participation in political activity.
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• Persons belonging to more than one group
can find their groups pulling in different
political directions; or some groups may
urge political action while others urge
inaction. Persons in that situation can be
thought of as cross-pressured.
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Community Identification
• It was mentioned several times above that
persons who are well integrated into their
community tend to feel close to the center
of community decisions and are more
likely to participate in politics.
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Age
• Many studies from around the world have
found that participation increases modestly
but steadily with age until it reaches a
peak in the middle years and then
gradually declines with old age.
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Variations by Sex
• The traditional division of labor which
assigns political roles to men rather than
women has not vanished. The finding that
men are more likely to participate in
politics than women is one of the most
thoroughly substantiated in social science.
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Race
• Participation patterns among Negroes in
the United States have undergone
revolutionary changes in the past two
decades. Negroes have moved from being
an inactive and disenfranchised minority,
especially in the South, to a more selfassured and vocal group in the 1970s.
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• If a minority is prevented from using
normal political channels for the redress of
grievances, does it turn to extraordinary
means or even attempt to destroy the
political system?
• Currently, dark-skinned people all around
the world seem to be caught up in a
"revolution of rising expectations.”
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Political Participation as a Function
of Environmental Variables
• Environmental factors shape human
behavior independently of the personal
traits of individuals. There are a variety of
contextual or environmental variables that
can affect political participation; the
nonhuman biological and physical aspects
of the environment; the cultural milieu; the
social structure of the community, and the
political setting.
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• By modernization we • The predominance of
mean the industrial
primary institutions (family,
penetration of
village, church) gives way
traditional societies
to secondary institutions
with concomitant
(voluntary organizations,
changes in their
unions, parties, state
sociopolitical
structures), face-to-face
structures and cultural communications give way
values.
to mass communications,
local autonomy to
interdependence, tribal
loyalties to national
loyalties, and so on.
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Modernization and Political
Violence
• The relationship between modernization
and potential for political violence differs
from the relationship between
modernization and conventional political
participation. Huntington (1968) shows
that whereas modernity breeds stability,
modernization breeds instability.
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• It seems that the highly developed as well
as the most traditional societies tend to be
peaceful and stable but that those
societies in the process of modernization
seem more likely to be violence prone.
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Rules of the Game
• Persons not eligible to vote in a society
are not likely to engage in other political
activities either. Mere eligibility, on the
other hand, by no means guarantees
participation.
• Even though suffrage may be "universal,"
there are often other legal barriers to
participation, the most significant being
residence requirements.
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• In some states, mainly in the South,
requirements for voting registration,
until recently were not only
inconvenient but downright difficult.
• Compulsory voting has been tried at
one time or another in several
countries.
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The Party System
• Political parties were invented, among
other reasons, to help citizens interpret
political information and events and to
organize and channel their political
participation. The political-party system
inevitably affects patterns and rates of
participation in politics.
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