Chapter 2
Section 1
Forming a research question
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Constructs= things that can be assumed are there
but cannot be seen directly (aggression, anxiety)
Forming a hypothesis
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Hypothesis= educated guess
Testing the hypothesis (various methods)
Analyzing the results
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Look for patterns and relationships in the data
Drawing conclusions
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Used in the validation of theories
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Replication
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Validation
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Study must be repeated with same results
Study must measure what it’s supposed to
New questions
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Process should lead to new questions
Section 2
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Survey- series of questions about a particular
subject
Written questionnaires or interviews
*information may not be completely accurate
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Populations/Samples
Target population- whole group to be studied
 Sample- small part of target population
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Samples
Random- participants selected by chance; each member
has equal chance
 Stratified- subgroups are represented proportionally
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Can’t make assumptions about other groups
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Bias- predisposition to a certain point of view
despite facts
Volunteer bias- people who volunteer have a
different outlook from those who don’t
Volunteers may be more willing to disclose
personal information
Volunteers may be more interested in research
than others
Section 3
Method
Testing
Case Study
Description
Several types of tests
measure various
elements of human
behavior such as
abilities, interests and
personality
Researchers
conduct in-depth
investigations of
individuals or
small groups
Advantages
Disadvantages
Convenient method
for researchers to
gain insight into
certain aspects of an
individual’s abilities
or behavior
Does not always
provide a complete
representation of an
individual’s true
abilities or personality
Provides insight
into specific
cases
-Cannot be replicated
-People may distort
their past experiences
-Researchers may
encourage people to
answer questions a
certain way
Method
Description
Advantages
Longitudinal
A group of participants
are observed at intervals
over an extended period
of time
Enables researchers to
see how individuals
change over time
Time-consuming and
expensive. Participants
may not be available for
duration of the study
Researchers compare
differences and
similarities among
people in different age
groups at a given time
Less time-consuming
than the longitudinal
method for studying
changes over time
Differences between the
members of the sample
cannot necessarily be
attributed to age or
development
Naturalistic
Observation
Researchers observe the
behavior of people or
animals in their natural
habitats
Enables researchers
to witness the
behavior of people or
animals in settings
that are not artificial
Researchers have no
control over the
setting or events that
occur
Laboratory
Observation
Participants are
observed in a
laboratory setting
Cross-Sectional
Enables researchers
to precisely control
certain aspects of the
study
Disadvantages
Laboratories cannot
duplicate real-life
environments
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20 months old= locked in small room
kept in room until age 13
Contact: Mother (fed her)
Father (beat her)
Had older brother who was also beaten
No one spoke to her and she did not speak
Language after rescue: limited
*critical time period for language development
Genie the Wild Child
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Correlation= measure of how closely one thing is
related to another
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The stronger the correlation, the more closely related the
items being measured
Positive and Negative Correlation
Positive Correlation= one variable increases, the other
one increases; one variable decreases the other decreases
 Negative Correlation= as one variable increases, the other
variable decreases
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation
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Limits of Correlation
Describes relationships
 Doesn’t reveal cause and effect
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Section 4
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Independent and Dependent Variables
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Variables= factors that can vary or change
 Independent variable= factor that researchers manipulate so
they can determine effect
 Dependent variable= depends on something; what is being
measured
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Experimental and Control Groups
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Experimental group= receives the treatment/manipulation
Control group= don’t receive treatment
Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
Controlled experiment= Experiment used control groups and
experimental groups
The Placebo Effect
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Placebo= substance or treatment that has no effect aside from a
person’s belief in its effect
Stanford Prison Experiment
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Single-Blind Studies= participants do not
know whether they are in the experimental
group or in the control group
Double-Blind Studies= both participants and
researchers are unaware of who receives the
treatment
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Required by FDA for new drugs
People can remain unbiased
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Central tendency= number that describes the
average score of a distribution (mean)
Can also find median and mode
Standard deviation= measure of distance of
every score to the mean
*Ethics= standards for proper and responsible
behavior
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Research with people
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Limits the type of research that can be done
Confidentiality
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promote dignity of the individual
foster human welfare
maintain scientific integrity
records are kept private
people more likely to disclose information and feelings
Informed Consent
restrictions prohibit studies that pose a serious threat to
the physical/psychological health of participants
 Informed consent= people agree to participate in a
research study after they have been given a general
overview of the study
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Deception: When to use it…
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when they believe that the benefits of the study
outweigh the harm
individuals would have been willing to participate if
they knew the benefits of the study
participants receive an explanation after the study is
over
Ethics in Using Data
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how they produce, store and present data
if data collected contradicts hypothesis, must be
willing to discard hypothesis