PPA 573 – Emergency
Management and Homeland
Security
Lecture 3a – Redesigning and
Administering Federal
Emergency Management
Source
R. T. Sylves. (1996). Redesigning
and administering federal emergency
management. In R. T. Sylves, & W. L.
Waugh, Jr., (Eds.), Disaster
management in the U.S. and
Canada, 2nd. Ed. (pp. 5-25).
Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
 Updated from www.fema.gov and
www.dhs.gov.

Introduction

In the aftermath of Hurricane
Andrew in 1992, the Federal
Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) was highly criticized for a
poor, mismanaged emergency
response.
Introduction

Since Hurricane Andrew, significant
changes have occurred:
• 1992 presidential election.
• Start of the Clinton Administration.
• The appointment of a state emergency
management director as FEMA director.
• The push of two National Performance Reviews
aimed at reinventing federal administration,
and
• A FEMA Director-led in-house assessment and
reorganization.
• 2000 presidential election.
• 9/11 events.
Introduction
This lecture focuses on the
managerial environment inside FEMA
during the period from 1993 to 2001,
prior to the events of September 11,
2001.
 It also updates managerial material
to reflect the Homeland Security Act
of 2002.

FEMA History
President Jimmy Carter created
FEMA on April 1, 1979 to consolidate
a confusing array of federal
emergency agencies.
 The reorganization came during a
much-criticized federal emergency
response to the Three Mile Island
Nuclear Power Plant accident.

FEMA History


FEMA was to provide a single point of contact for
state and local governments and was to optimize
the use of emergency preparedness and response
resources at all levels of government by taking
advantage of the similarities and response
activities for both peacetime and attack
emergencies.
The agency was supposed to replace a patchwork
of disparate agencies, councils, laws, and
executive orders with a central, consolidated, and
integrated emergency management agency.
FEMA History


Prior to 1979, there as no organized
regulated framework by which the federal
government could provide coordinated
emergency management and federal
disaster response.
For many years Congress dispensed
disaster aid to the states on a disaster-bydisaster basis.
• From 1803 to 1950, over 128 separate disaster
laws were enacted.
FEMA History


1986 study of disaster policy revealed that
laws passed between disasters (in normal
times) were usually better conceived than
those hurriedly approved soon after
disasters.
Congress was slow to understand disaster
in generic, rather than type-specific terms.
• Congress tended to pass laws for specific types
of disaster rather than use an all-hazard
approach.
• Result: Patchwork of overlapping, duplicative
programs.
FEMA History

Federal Disaster Act of 1950 (P.L. 81-875)
broke the single incident cycle.
• Created the basic philosophy of disaster relief
and laid the foundation for federal-state cost
sharing.
• Originally only for public assistance (the
replacement of public facilities). Private
assistance relied on private and nonprofit
charities (e.g., Red Cross, Salvation Army,
Mennonite Disaster Service).
FEMA History

Disaster Relief Act of 1970.
• Temporary housing program and other
individual assistance programs.

Disaster Relief Act of 1974 (P.L. 93288).
• Individual and Family Grant Program.

75% federal and 25% state.
FEMA History

Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and
Emergency Assistance Act of 1988
(P.L. 100-707).
• The Act expanded assistance to all
disasters regardless of cause.

FEMA was an independent agency,
but is now part of the Department of
Homeland Security.
FEMA History

FEMA has about 2,600 permanent
employees.
•
•
•
•
The Mitigation Directorate,
The Federal Insurance Administration (FIA)
The United States Fire Administration (USFA)
The Preparedness, Training and Exercises
Directorate,
• The Response and Recovery Directorate,
• The Operations Support Directorate, and
• The Information Technology Services
Directorate (ITS).
Managerial World of FEMA
A. President
- White House Staff
B. Congress
- House & Senate
- Leadership/ committees
- Governmental Accountability Office
Office of Management and Budget
C. Secretary of Homeland Security
E. Collateral federal agencies
- Federal Response Plan organizations
- SBA, DOT, HUD, HHS, EPA, DOD, etc.
D. Under Secretary for Emergency Preparedness & Response
(FEMA Director)
- Political top staff
- Senior civil servants
F. FEMA regions (10)
G. State governments
- Governors
- National Guard
- State legislatures
H. State emergency managers
National Emergency Management Association
I. Local governments
- County and city leaders
- Local lawmakers
J. Local emergency managers
- Fire service, police, emergency
medicine, public works, building
inspectors, zoning authorities, housing,
health, environmental protection, etc.
K. Disaster victims
- Individuals and families, businesses
- Governments with infrastructure losses
L. Private sector
- Nonprofit community service and volunteer organizations
- Disaster response and recovery businesses
- Interest groups: insurance companies,
banks/lenders, developers,
construction firms, building trades, etc.
National Coordinating Council for Emergency Management
Managerial World of FEMA

Political appointees.
• In 1993 GAO alleged that FEMA had too many
political appointees (30+) for its size.



All 10 regional directors and the heads of several
subsidiary organizations.
Eight FEMA appointees require Senate confirmation.
Five separate Senate committees must vote to
confirm most of these employees.
• Partially addressed by the hiring of
professional emergency management
personnel for political positions by James Lee
Witt.
• Problem must be solved by Congress.
Managerial World of FEMA

A new mission statement.
• Traditional strategy:

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Enhance the capability of state and local
governments to respond to disaster.
Coordinate with 26 federal agencies assigned to
provide resources to respond to disasters.
Give federal assistance directly to citizens recovering
from disasters.
Grant financial assistance to state and local
governments.
Provide leadership, through grants, flood plain
management, and other activities of hazard
mitigation.
Managerial World of FEMA

A new mission statement (Witt).
• The mission of the Federal Emergency
Management Agency is to provide the
leadership and support to reduce the
loss of life and property and protect our
institutions from all types of hazards
through a comprehensive, risk-based,
all-hazards emergency management
program of mitigation, preparedness,
response, and recovery.
Managerial World of FEMA

A new mission statement (20032008 DHS Strategic Plan).
• Vision

A Nation Prepared
• Mission

Lead America to prepare for, prevent,
respond to, and recover from disasters.
Managerial World of FEMA

A new mission statement (under DHS).
• Core Values


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
Integrity
Customer Focus
Innovation
Public Stewardship
Accountability
Partnership
Respect
Diversity
Trust
Compassion
Managerial World of FEMA

A new mission statement (under DHS).
• Goals

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1. Reduce loss of life and property.
2. Minimize suffering and disruption caused by
disasters.
3. Prepare the Nation to address the consequences of
terrorism.
4. Serve as the Nation’s portal for emergency
management information
and expertise.
5. Create a motivating and challenging work
environment for employees.
6. Make FEMA a world-class enterprise.
Managerial World of FEMA

National Performance Review
• Under Director Witt’s leadership, FEMA
conducted two rounds of self-evaluation with
inputs for all significant stake-holders.
• The Government Performance and Results Act
of 1993 has also required the submission of a
five-year strategic plan and annual
performance plans.

FEMA has issued performance plans for 1999-2002
and has a strategic plan for 2003-2008.
Managerial World of FEMA

Hazard mitigation.
• Under Witt, FEMA began to emphasize
the importance of mitigation.
Actions and strategies to reduce the impact
of disaster or prevent it altogether.
 15% of disaster assistance funds went to
mitigation with up to 75% FEMA funding of
state and local projects.
 Hazard Mitigation Assistance Program and
Section 409 assistance (after disaster).

Managerial World of FEMA

Hazard mitigation (contd.).
• Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000 (P.L.
106-390).
Amend Stafford Act (42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.)
 Establish a national program for pre-disaster
mitigation
 Streamline administration of disaster relief
 Control Federal costs of disaster assistance

Managerial World of FEMA

Hazard mitigation (contd.).
• Aimed at reducing loss of life and property,
human suffering, economic disruption, and
disaster costs
• High priority should be given to mitigation
of hazards at the local level
• Increased emphasis placed on:
 Assessing risks
 Implementing loss reduction measures
 Ensuring critical services/facilities survive
a disaster
Managerial World of FEMA

Hazard mitigation (contd.).
• With unified effort of economic incentives,
awareness and education, and Federal support-State and local Governments (including Indian
tribes) will be able to:
 Form effective community-based partnerships
 Implement effective hazard mitigation
measures
 Leverage additional non-Federal resources
 Commit to long-term hazard mitigation efforts
Managerial World of FEMA

Reorganization.
• Before 1993, National Preparedness
Directorate and State and Local Programs and
Support Directorate.

Most money spent on national preparedness.
• From 1993-2001, Response and Recovery,
Mitigation, Preparedness-Training & Exercises,
Operations Support, Information Technology.

Most money spent on disaster assistance.
• Since 2001, same directorates, plus expanded
Office of National Security Coordination.

Increased focus on continuity of operations.
Managerial World of FEMA

Headquarters/ field relations.
• Another damaging claim concerned the
compartmentalized nature of many FEMA
offices.
• Director Witt increased headquarters and
regional office interaction.
• Job of FEMA to make sure that the regions
have appropriate personnel and competencies.

Regions IV (Southeast), VI (South Central), and IX
(Southwest) have the greatest number of disaster
declarations from 1953 to 1994 (205, 191, 168). No
other region has more than 95.
Managerial World of FEMA

Training and education.
• NAPA and GAO studies in 1992 concluded that
FEMA needed to better integrate academic and
professional scholarship into the training and
education programs it provide sits employees
and the employees of state and local
government.
• It is not clear that the agency has yet done
this.
• The critical task will be the ability of FEMA to
learn from past disasters and integrate the
lessons into its training programs.
• Elements of a new evaluation program are in
place.
Managerial World of FEMA

FEMA and civil defense against nuclear
attack.
• Continuity of government programs a primary
function prior to 1993.
• From 1993-2001, a shift toward disaster relief,
but continuity functions still operative.
• Since 2001, a partial shift back to continuity of
government.
• Loathe to lose national security money, FEMA
has worked to give national security functions
dual use capabilities.
Managerial World of FEMA

Human resources and clerical
activity.
• Director Witt (1993-2001) began the
process of examining agency staffing,
adoption of new technologies, and
reduction of routine expenses. But, the
process was not completed.
• Homeland Security Act of 2002 gave
DHS (and FEMA) new personnel
flexibilities.
Managerial World of FEMA


DHS issued new draft human resource
regulations on Feb. 25, 2004.
The proposed regulations developed by
the DHS and the U.S. Office of Personnel
Management would cover pay,
classification, performance management,
labor relations, adverse action and
employee appeals.
• The new regulations grant significant
flexibilities to line managers.
FEMA and Other Federal Agencies

Federal Response Plan.
• The poor coordination of Hurricane Hugo
in 1989 led to the creation of new
Federal Response Plan.
• This plan is the current model for
federal interaction in an emergency.
• The plan relies on twelve Emergency
Support Functions, each administered
by a different federal agency.
FEMA and Other Federal Agencies

Federal Response Plan
• Emergency Support Functions.

Resources provided by the federal government are grouped
into 12 Emergency Support Functions (ESFs):
• ESF 1: Transportation. Providing civilian and military
transportation.
Lead agency: Department of Transportation
• ESF 2: Communications. Providing telecommunications
support.
Lead agency: National Communications System
• ESF 3: Public Works and Engineering. Restoring essential
public services and facilities.
Lead agency: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Department of
Defense
• ESF 4: Fire Fighting. Detecting and suppressing wildland, rural
and urban fires.
Lead agency: U.S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture
FEMA and Other Federal Agencies

Federal Response Plan
• Emergency Support Functions.

Resources provided by the federal government are grouped
into 12 Emergency Support Functions (ESFs):
• ESF 5: Information and Planning. Collecting, analyzing and
disseminating critical information to facilitate the overal
federal response and recovery operations.
Lead agency: Federal Emergency Management Agency
• ESF 6: Mass Care. Managing and coordinating food, shelter
and first aid for victims; providing bulk distribution of relief
supplies; operating a system to assist family reunification.
Lead agency: American Red Cross
• ESF 7: Resource Support. Providing equipment, materials,
supplies and personnel to federal entities during response
operations.
Lead agency: General Services Administration
• ESF 8: Health and Medical Services. Providing assistance for
public health and medical care needs.
Lead agency: U.S. Public Health Service, Department of
Health and Human Services
FEMA and Other Federal Agencies

Federal Response Plan
• Emergency Support Functions.

Resources provided by the federal government are grouped
into 12 Emergency Support Functions (ESFs):
• ESF 9: Urban Search and Rescue. Locating, extricating and
providing initial medical treatment to victims trapped in
collapsed structures.
Lead agency: Federal Emergency Management Agency
• ESF 10: Hazardous Materials. Supporting federal response to
actual or potential releases of oil and hazardous materials.
Lead agency: Environmental Protection Agency
• ESF 11: Food. Identifying food needs; ensuring that food gets
to areas affected by disaster.
Lead agency: Food and Nutrition Service, Department of
Agriculture
• ESF 12: Energy. Restoring power systems and fuel supplies.
Lead agency: Department of Energy
FEMA and Other Federal Agencies

FEMA and the military.
• The FEMA response to Hurricane Andrew led many
commentators to suggest that FEMA be disbanded and
its functions disbursed to other agencies including the
military, who did an excellent job of mass care.
• In recent years, the military has begun redefining its
functions especially in light of its humanitarian
operations.
• However, the Department of Defense faces significant
political and constitutional obstacles relating to civilian
supremacy over the military and Defense interference in
domestic affairs.
• FEMA’s leverage over the military is questionable.
Conclusion


FEMA serves the lead agency for the
coordination of disaster response, but
faces significant obstacles related to lack
of regulatory authority, very limited
mandating ability, relative small budget
and grant issuance power, weak research
capacity, bureaucratic inertia, politically
weak clientele, and other factors.
These influences are complicated by the
heightened national security functions
imposed by 9/11.