MOTIVATION theories
Falkné dr. Bánó Klára
BGF Külkereskedelmi Főiskolai Kar
Falkne.dr.BanoKlara@kkfk.bgf.hu
falk.cs@t-online.hu
What is Motivation?
The study of motivation is about why people behave
in a certain way. Motivation can be described as the
direction and persistence of action.
It is about why people choose a particular course of
action and why they continue with a chosen action
even in the face of difficulties and problems.
Four common characteristics which underlie the
definition of motivation (Mitchell):
• Motivation - individual phenomenon
• Motivation - intentional
• Motivation is multifaceted – The two most important
factors: - what gets people activated (arousal)
- the force of an individual to engage in
desired behaviour (direction or choice of
behaviour)
• The purpose of motivational theories is to predict
behaviour.
Four common characteristics which underlie the
definition of motivation (Mitchell):
Motivation is not the behaviour itself, and it is not
performance. Motivation concerns action, and the
internal and external forces which influence a person’s
choice of action.
On the basis of these characteristics:
‘Motivation is the degree to which an individual
wants and chooses to engage in certain specified
behaviours.’
The underlying concept of motivation
The underlying concept of motivation is some
driving force within individuals by which they
attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfil
some need or expectation.
This concept gives rise to the basic motivational
model.
A simplified illustration of the basic motivational
model (Mullins)
NEEDS OR
EXPECTATIONS
result in
feedback
DRIVING FORCE
(behaviour or action)
FULFILMENT
to achieve
which provide
DESIRED
GOALS
Motivation is influenced by many variables
People’s behaviour is determined by what motivates them.
Their performance is a product of both ability level and
motivation.
Motivation is a complex subject, it is a very personal thing
and it is influenced by many variables.
Individuals have a variety of changing, and often
conflicting, needs and expectations which they attempt to
satisfy in different ways.
A useful three-fold classification for the
motivation to work:
Economic
Rewards
Intrinsic
Satisfaction
NEEDS
AND
EXPECTATIONS
AT WORK
Social
Relationships
Frustration-induced behaviour
If a person’s motivational driving force is blocked
before reaching the desired goal, there are
Two possible sets of outcomes:
• constructive behaviour – positive reaction
1. problem solving 2. restructuring or compromise
• frustration – negative response to the blockage
of a desired goal,
results in a defensive form of
behaviour
Frustration – possible reactions
• Aggression – physical or verbal attack on some
person or object – displaced aggression-find a
scapegoat for the outlet of frustration
• Regression – reverting to a childish or more primitive
form of behaviour, e.g. crying, sulking
• Fixation – persisting in a form of behaviour which
has no adaptive value, repeating actions with no
positive results, e.g. trying a machine again and again
which will not work
• Withdrawal – apathy, giving up, e.g. absenteeism
Forms of frustration-induced behaviours-usually
combined
Most forms of frustration-induced
behaviours are a combination of
aggression, regression and fixation.
An overview of the main theories of work
motivation
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model
Applying Maslow’s need hierarchy
Needs levels
General rewards
Organisational factors
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Relationships among Maslow’s, Alderfer’s and
Herzberg’s theories of motivation:
McClelland’s achievement motivation
theory
McClelland identified four main motives:
• Achievement motive
• Power motive
• Affiliative motives
• Avoidance motives
(These correspond to Maslow’s self actualisation, esteem
and love needs.) He saw achievement need as the most
critical for a country’s economic success and growth.
Managers seem to be higher in achievement
motivation than in affiliation motivation.
McClelland’s achievement motivation
theory (cont.)
Four characteristics of people with a strong
achievement need:
•
•
•
•
preference for moderate task difficulty
personal responsibility for performance
need for clear and unambiguous feedback
innovativeness
High achievers – environmental influences
McClelland’s research has attempted to
understand the characteristics of high achievers.
Strong achievement need is not hereditary but
results from environmental influences.
- training programmes to increase the
achievement motivation of managers
Process Theories of Motivation
Process theories place emphasis on the actual
process of motivation. They attempt to identify
the relationships among the dynamic variables
which make up motivation, and how behaviour is
initiated, directed and sustained.
Major approaches in process theories:
• Expectancy-based models –Vroom
Porter and Lawler
• Equity theory
- Adams
• Goal theory
- Locke
• Attribution theory
- Heider and Kelley
Expectancy theory
The underlying basis of expectancy theory is that
people are influenced by the expected results of
their actions. Motivation is a function of the
relationship between:
• effort expended and perceived level of
performance
• the expectation that rewards (desired
outcomes) will be related to performance
• expectation that rewards are available
Expectancy theory (cont.)
These relationships determine the strength of the
‘motivational link’.
The choice of behaviour is based on the
expectancy of the most favourable consequences.
Vroom – 3 key variables: 1. valence of outcomes
2. instrumentality
3. expectancy
First-level outcomes – performance related
Second-level outcomes - need related
What is expectancy?
People develop a perception of the degree of
probability that the choice of a particular action
will lead to the desired outcome.
This is expectancy. – It is the relationship
between a chosen course of action and its
predicted outcome.
Basic model of expectancy theory
Equity theory - Adams
Equity theory focuses on people’s feelings
of how fairly they have been treated in
comparison with the treatment received by
others.
Adams’ equity theory of motivation
Goal theory - Locke
The basic premise of goal theory is that
people’s goals or intensions play an
important part in determining behaviour.
Locke’s theory of goal setting