BSc (IM) 6th semester
Bachelor Thesis
Author: Jonas Stoffregen
Supervisor: Robson S. Rocha, PhD
The Danish Psychic Working Environment
The Development of The Psychic Working Environment and The
Connection to Motivational Theories
Aarhus University,
Department of Business Administration
2012
96.966 Characters (including spaces)
Index
Abstract ................................................................................................................ 3
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 4
Problem statement ............................................................................................... 4
Outline and delimitation ....................................................................................... 4
Outline ................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Delimitation ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
Theoretical part .................................................................................................... 5
Methodology ....................................................................................................................................................... 5
Herzberg Motivator-hygiene Theory .......................................................................................................... 5
Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation ................................................................................................ 7
Reward systems .................................................................................................................................................... 8
The theory of goal setting ................................................................................................................................ 9
Theory of feedback ............................................................................................................................................10
360 degree and upward feedback ................................................................................................................... 10
The four drives of motivation .......................................................................................................................12
Literature review ........................................................................................................................................... 12
Impact of feedback and incentives.............................................................................................................12
Participation, Financial incentives and goal setting in motivating employees ....................13
Review of the Impact of Financial and Nonfinancial rewards of Employee Motivation ..14
Aim and theoretical background of study ................................................................................................... 14
Financial rewards ................................................................................................................................................... 14
Nonfinancial rewards ........................................................................................................................................... 15
Results of study ....................................................................................................................................................... 15
Financial rewards ............................................................................................................................................. 15
Nonfinancial rewards ...................................................................................................................................... 16
Additional survey data ................................................................................................................................... 16
Conclusion of study ................................................................................................................................................ 18
A walkthrough of the evolution of motivational theories and incentive systems ................18
The fundamental theories: 1900-1969 ......................................................................................................... 18
Some Criticism emerges – 1970-1979 .......................................................................................................... 18
A shift towards management motivation and strategy: 1980-1989................................................ 19
Strategy and globalization: 1990-1999 ........................................................................................................ 19
Strategy and Herzberg’s theory: 2000-2010 .............................................................................................. 20
Analytical part .................................................................................................... 21
Background for study .................................................................................................................................. 21
Data provision ................................................................................................................................................. 22
Development in the working environment in the period of period of 1990 and 2000 .... 23
Development in the working environment in the period of 2000 and 2005 ........................ 24
Quantitative demands .....................................................................................................................................24
Cognitive demands ............................................................................................................................................25
Emotional demands ..........................................................................................................................................26
Demand to hide Emotions ..............................................................................................................................27
Influence .................................................................................................................................................................28
Growth opportunity ..........................................................................................................................................30
Meaning in work.................................................................................................................................................30
Involvement in work .........................................................................................................................................31
Predictability........................................................................................................................................................32
Role clarity ............................................................................................................................................................33
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Role conflict ..........................................................................................................................................................34
Management quality ........................................................................................................................................36
Social support in work .....................................................................................................................................37
Feedback ................................................................................................................................................................38
Social Community ..............................................................................................................................................38
Insecurity at work..............................................................................................................................................39
Job satisfaction ....................................................................................................................................................40
Somatic Stress Symptoms...............................................................................................................................41
Cognitive stress symptoms .............................................................................................................................42
Conclusive part ................................................................................................... 43
The development of the psychic working environment ................................................................ 43
Motivational theories and the Danish psychic working environment .................................... 44
Recommendations .............................................................................................. 45
Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 45
Appendix ........................................................................................................... 47
Dimensions for 2000/2005 ....................................................................................................................... 47
The Development in All Dimensions ..................................................................................................... 53
Abstract
The understanding of what motivates employees, has in the last couple of
decades become increasingly important to create an understanding of, because
of the constant increase in the international competition situations, that has
forced organizations into streamlining their hierarchical structure, and to boost
their performance and product quality, through increasingly motivated and
engaged employees, that are wiling to contribute to a greater extend, and are
more loyal to the organization. This report aims to benefit to this understanding,
through an investigation how the Danish psychic working environment has
developed, and how the development of this environment, has been affected by
the creation of motivational theories and research. This has required the
inclusion of literature on motivational theories, that might affect the psychic
working environment, up to date research on the impact of different incentive
systems, and the inclusion of both historical and periodic data on the
development of the Danish psychic working environment, as to create a
thorough and well supported investigation of the topic presented in this paper.
From the main analysis, it was found that the development of the Danish psychic
working environment, seemed to not only be connected to the development of
new theories and the creation of new knowledge but, that it is also strongly
affected by the opinion of the government in charge. While it was further found,
that the development of the psychic working environment, as a result of the
increased demands on employees, has not improved during the investigation
period chosen for this study.
The findings of this study indicate that the development of the psychic working
environment in Denmark, is under influence from several external factors, such
as foreign research and even the economic situation, and that a governmental
change, might halt future developments, and might even deteriorate the
development, the psychic working environment has seen in the last decade.
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Introduction
The understandings of employees, and the creation of motivational theories,
have long been the center of attention for several researchers, as it was found,
that if one could understand employee needs and wants, they would have the
possibility of improving organizational performance through increased
employee loyalty, performance and their willingness to contribute to the
organization to a much greater extend. I will in this report focus mainly on those
motivational theories that affect the psychic working environment. Because I
find the knowledge, that it is possible to completely alter ones perception of the
close working environment, through incentives such as in time and work related
feedback, clear and achievable goals or individual rewards systems, as very
interesting to look into, as one develops an understanding of what creates and
maintains motivation.
Research has however found, that there is a possibility of encountering
complications when implementing motivational theories, as the cultural
differences between country of origin and country of implementation, can have
unpredictable effects on the working environment, and can result in outright
undesirable motivational impacts. The possibility for complications or outright
problems with the implementation of motivational theories, that has the
possibility of improving the psychic working environment, inspired the initial
idea of investigating whether there is a connection between the general
development of motivational theories, and the development of a working
environment.
This idea further developed into the desire to investigate, whether there was a
connection between the development of motivational theories and the
development of the Danish psychic working environment. Where it was found
that the theoretical and analytical data used, further enabled the inclusion of
whether the development of the Danish psychic working environment could be
defined as improving.
Problem statement
This report aims to analyse the development of the Danish working
environment, and to determine whether there is a connection between the
development of motivational theories and the Danish working environment.
Outline and delimitation
Outline
As this report attempts to investigate, whether there is a connection between the
development of motivational theories and the Danish working environment,
while also creating an in-depth analysis of the current development of the Danish
psychic working environment, it has been necessary to create a well-structured
and organized report.
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For this purpose, it has been decided that the theoretical and analytical part of
this report, should be further expanded into subgroups to ensure, that the reader
may easily navigate and maintain an overview of the different topics presented
throughout this report. To provide an example of this, one may look at the
methodology section from the theoretical part of the report, where the different
theories used for the creation of this report, have been separated from one
another to ensure, that the reader easily can locate a specific theory if needed.
It is my opinion that the clear distinction between topics and information is
necessary, to ensure the possibility for ease of navigation and understanding.
Delimitation
As one can see from the problem statement of this report, the topic itself is
rather comprehensive and open for individual interpretations, as it aims to
explain a rather comprehensive issue. The delimitation of the report is therefore
important as it leaves the reader with the proper understanding of what exactly
the report will cover, and how it will be covered.
First, it should be stated that the report has been limited to only cover the
psychic working environment, and there will therefore only be included
motivational theories that are capable of creating an impact on this environment.
As the list of theories on this specific subject is still rather comprehensive, the
methodology part of the report, will act as further limitation, as it is only those
theories presented there, that should be taken into consideration during the
analytical part of the study.
Second, the main focus on the analysis will concern the development of the
Danish psychic working environment during the period of 2000-2005, and there
will here be use nineteen different comparable dimensions. The analysis will also
include literature about the early construction of an improved psychic working
environment in Denmark, and a brief analysis of the development made in this
environment made during the 1990’s.
Third, the statistical data presented in the analytical part of the study, will come
from the Danish National Research Centre for the Working Environment, as to
create a consistency and reliability in the data.
Fourth, as to avoid the inclusion of out dated theories, research or studies in this
report, it has been decided that all material in the report, should be either recent,
or support by recent research as to make certain of its continued relevance.
Theoretical part
Methodology
Herzberg Motivator-hygiene Theory
The theory of Herzberg (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 176-181) is
formed as to have a strong focus on job enrichment, through the focus of job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction, and it therefore assumes a complex interaction
between the internal and external factors, where individuals respond differently
to stimuli. The factors that have a distinct effect on job satisfaction, is the
intrinsic aspects of work, as they are associated with the task being performed.
Herzberg has labelled these factors as motivations, because of the linkage to
strong effort and performance.
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Herzberg found that the factors that had a distinct effect on job dissatisfaction
involved the extrinsic aspects of work, and primarily revolved around the work
context and environment of the organization itself. Herzberg labelled these
factors as hygiene factors and proposed them as not being motivational.
The last point and most important point of Herzbergs theory, is the separation of
Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction, where they are not viewed as opposites, but
separate needs that can be fulfilled. This distinction means that the satisfaction,
dissatisfaction continuum, contains a zero point where an employee has neither
job satisfaction nor dissatisfaction.
Herzberg has on base of his theory suggested, that an enriched job will include
the opportunity for achievement, recognition for ones work, stimulation,
responsibility and advancement.
Critics of this model does warn that the method of which the theory has been
conducted, opens it for the risk of being biased, limits its predictive power
among people with low education or job level, and that the model will vary
across cultures.
(Bassett-Jones & Lloyd, 2005) Argues in their study concerning the staying
power of Herzberg’s theory, that a positive relationship with line managers, had
a direct influence on employee willingness to contribute ideas, and the extend to
which an employee wanted to improve organisational success, and to the extend
to which an employee attempts to save the employer money.
In order to perform this study, (Bassett-Jones & Lloyd, 2005) deemed it necessary
to overcome some of the major critiques of Herzberg, and the study was
therefore performed through the usage of the survey method, where observable
behaviour, rather than emotion was the main focus of the study.
(Bassett-Jones & Lloyd, 2005, s. 11) Found that a negative perception of
managers, lead to a decrease in employee willingness to share ideas, and
therefore concluded, that the positive perception of ones managers, had replaced
recognition as the motivational factor of sharing ideas. (Bassett-Jones & Lloyd,
2005) Contributes this change, to the flatter hierarchy structure of today’s
companies, where there are fewer prospects for promotions.
(Bassett-Jones & Lloyd, 2005) Concludes as Herzberg that while encouragement
can move some employees, more are motivated through the desire to overcome
frustration and to improve the organisational success.
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Figure 1
Contributors of ideas
100%
90%
80%
70%
88%
80%
85%
77%
73%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Positive attitude
towards line
manager
Approachable
line manager
Considered
manager to have
the necessary
technical
knowlegde
Being treated
with respect
Feels supported
in doing their
best
These results have been taken from (Bassett-Jones & Lloyd, 2005, s. 11) and they depict
the answers of employees that contributed with ideas.
Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation
Vroom’s (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 198-203) view on motivation
revolves around the expected reward, or outcome an individual expects to gain
from a given level of performance. According to Vroom’s theory, the willingness
to perform for a given task is affected by three different sequences of
expectation.
First, the initial motivation is created by the individuals’ expectation, that a
certain level of effort, will result in meeting the organizations projected
performance goal. Secondly, motivation will be influenced by the individuals
perceived chance of receiving rewards as compensation for performing at a
higher level. Thirdly, Motivation will only be positive, as long as the reward will
contain higher perceived value, than the perceived value of the effort put into the
task.
The theory does put forward that the difficulty of a task, will have a significant
importance to ones willingness to perform, as non-challenging or too challenging
tasks will cause employees to feel frustrated, and thereby be less willing to
perform high. Because of this implication, it is important for managers, to not
rely solely on their own views of the individual employees abilities, but rather
include the single individuals perception of him/herself, when assigning
projects.
Because of the importance of the single individuals perception, the organization
cannot rely solely on standardized rewards, since individuals’ value differently.
Organisations therefore have to apply rewards that are specifically chosen for
each person.
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The usage of expectancy theory relies on the organization, not only being able to
meet the individual needs and self perception, but also that it is capable of
keeping the promises of rewards.
It should be noted that in practice, organizational rewards system often fail,
because of the difficulties regarding measurements of performance and
subjective ratings.
Reward systems
The theory of reward systems, does not only focus on the monetary rewards or
benefits, that one is prone to achieve through hard work, but also the less
obvious social and the psychological rewards.
These two types of rewards are important, because the social rewards are praise
and recognition, while the psychological rewards stems from personal feelings of
self-esteem, self-satisfaction and accomplishment (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm,
2010, s. 225-227).
The financial and social reward systems, are defined as extrinsic rewards as they
are generated from the environment, the psychological rewards are on the other
hand intrinsic, as they are self-generated.
Research into intrinsic and extrinsic motivation found that intrinsic motivation
was not desirable for all employees as previously thought, as it was valued
higher in countries with a strong focus on welfare and a low power distance,
with an individualistic culture. In cultures with poor social security and a larger
power distance, intrinsic motivation was found to not being desired.
According to theory by K.G Wheeler, presented in (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm,
2010, s. 228), the effective reward system, have to take into account the single
individuals preferences for both norms and the social, cultural and political
economic contexts, when designing or implementing reward systems, that might
enhance job satisfaction or motivation.
The norms used, have to be clear and consensual, as the organizational reward
norms, in their pure form create significantly different reward distribution
systems.
The first of these norms presented in (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 228)
is the profit maximization, where an employee regardless of the well being of the
organization, would strive to achieve as high rewards as possible, and have no
company loyalty in case of better employment offers.
Second, there is the equity norm, which according to studies is present in most
cultures, and is driven by fairness and justice, in the sense that rewards are
distributed according to contribution.
As the third, there is the equality norm, with its focus on rewarding everybody
regardless of individual contribution. This norm is supported by research that
shows that the smaller the pay gap, the better the individual and organizational
performance. Need is present as the fourth norm, as it calls for distribution
rewards to the need of the individual rather than contributions.
According to D. R. Spitzer which is presented in (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm,
2010, s. 229) there are eight reasons, that explains why desired motivational
impact often is not achieved, despite of strong monetary and time investments.
 Too great an emphasis on monetary rewards
 Rewards are seen as lacking the appreciation effect
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





The risk of extensive benefits becoming entitlements
Counter productive behaviour becomes rewarded
Extensive periods pass between performance and rewards
Standardized rewards
The usage of rewards with a short motivational impact
Demotivated practices such as lay off. Across the board pay rises, cuts and
excessive compensation for executives.
(Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 230) Presents three issues found by
researchers, that are of importance to the balance between financial and nonfinancial reward systems. First, research as presented by L. Morris highlights the
employee desire for interesting work and recognition over monetary gain,
secondly E. L. Deci, R. Koestner and R.M. Ryan is included for their conclusion,
that extrinsic rewards can lose their motivating abilities over time and might
even undermine intrinsic motivation.
Third as noted by Steven Kerr that monetary rewards must be significantly
above an employee’s base pay to have a true motivational effect.
The theory of goal setting
In the context of motivational theory, goals are defined as the object, aim or
action, which an individual is trying to accomplish.
Research into motivational theory, repeatedly supports goal setting theory as an
effective technique, as it helps setting performance goals that, increases group
and individual performance (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 210-216).
When introducing new goals the awareness of possible conflicting goals is
important, as conflict will result in lower performance and confusion as to which
goal to fulfil. In goal setting theory, there are three areas of research that are
placed with importance, as they have proven to have a significant impact on the
overall motivation. The first point goal difficulty simply reflects the needed effort
to fulfil a goal. According to research, higher difficulty is positively linked to
higher performance, as long as the overall difficulty does not exceed the abilities
of the individual, group or organization.
Goal specificity is the second point, and it revolves around the specification of
goals, as a way to clarify the objective.
Research into goal specification has shown, that employees are not likely to
increase performance, if they do not believe or trust in said goals, and that
innovative and complex goals will have increased completion time, as employees
need additional time for understanding, solving and approaching these goals.
The third point, goal commitment, describes the strength of a persons intention
to reach a goal, and the unwillingness this person has to abandon or lower the
bar over time. Research into goal commitment hypothesize, that one may only
expect high performance on difficult goals, when there is a strong commitment
to the completion of them. Under this point research found, that individuals with
a high need for achievement, perform higher as they have a natural high goal
commitment.
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Theory of feedback
According to research presented in (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 217),
feedback is of great importance to employees. The feedback received, is however
often only in negative situations or it is consistent of poor quality, which the
employee cannot use to improve oneself.
According to D.R. Ilgen, C.D. Fisher and M.S. Taylor (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm,
2010, s. 217), feedback serves two functions for the recipient, as the
instructional part will clarify a role or teach the employee a new behaviour,
while motivation is created through feedback as a reward, or the promise of one.
According to A.N. Kluger and A. DeNisi (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s.
218), the previous believed assumption that feedback automatically had an
effect, has had to be rethought as their data revealed, that while organizations in
general get positive performance, the possibility of a decrease in performance
through the usage of feedback, showed to be 38 %. Their conclusion has been
explained as feedback not solely functioning on an objective scale, but also a
subjective scale, that is prone to be biased.
This subjective feedback is according to D.M. Harold and D.B Fedor (BuelensSinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 218), easily contaminated by situational factors,
such as the racial bias. They further explain that if the objective feedback is to
work as intended, there is a need for managers to properly understand the
connection between feedback recipients, and their immediate environment.
B.D. Bannister (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 219) found that the overall
perception of feedback is strongly dependent on the nature of it. It was found
that recipients of positive feedback were more likely to accurately recall it later,
than recipients of negative feedback.
In relation to this, S.J. Ashford and A.S Tsui (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s.
219) found that the motivational impact of negative feedback was higher than
recipients of positive feedback. These results have been explained as being
created through the desire to improve, and higher goal setting. Negative
feedback should however be carefully used, as it might create insecurity,
defensiveness and have a damaging effect on self-efficacy.
As feedback becomes based on the cognitive criteria such as accuracy, credibility
of source, and fairness of system, performance –reward expectancies and the
reasonableness of standards, the need for trustworthy and credible managers
increases, as they are experiencing less problems when applying feedback as a
motivational factor, A.C. Wicks, S.L. Berman and T.M. Jones (Buelens-SindingWaldstrøm, 2010, s. 219-220).
360 degree and upward feedback
The 360-degree and upward feedback approaches presented in (BuelensSinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 222-223), break aside from the more traditional
and strict superior to subordinate feedback systems, as they allow for additional
sources of feedback.
Under the 360-degree system, feedback is included from the individual’s own
perception of performance, along with that of behaviourally specific
performance information, supplied by superiors, subordinates, peers and those
outside the company. Research has however indicated, that because of time
consumption and cost, the model often does not include those outside the
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organization, because of the lack of available data, M. London and R.W. Beatty
(Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 222).
In contrast, management often resists the upward feedback model, as it is
deemed to gradually wear away their authority, through subordinates providing
feedback on management style and performance. The model has further received
critic such as that of B.P. Mathews and T. Redman (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm,
2010, s. 222), where it is claimed, that the upward feedback model is functioning
as either a popularity test or is directly manipulated by management through
promises or threats. Because of potential manipulation and threats, the upward
feedback model, is not recommended as the primary determinant for either
promotion or pay. It is however useful for the construction of development
programs. They further suggest, that open feedback, which is preferred by
managers, is less effective than anonymous feedback, because they feel less
uncomfortable. The popularity of these two approaches is increasing, because of
at least six reasons that together suggests, the benefit of looking into innovative
ways of giving and receiving performance related feedback (Buelens-SindingWaldstrøm, 2010, s. 222-223).
 Traditional performance appraisal systems create widespread
dissatisfaction
 The team based organization is replacing the traditional hierarchy
structure, and now requires interpersonal skills that are best evaluated
by team members
 Multiple rate systems are seen as making more valid feedback than the
single source rating.
 Advanced computer network technology such as the company intranet,
now facilitates the multiple rating systems.
 Bottom-up feedback interlaced structure functions with the tendency of
participative management and employee empowerment
 Co-workers and subordinates have shown to know more about the
professional’s strengths and limitations.
Through the feedback systems, there has been created awareness about ones
behaviour, and the effect it has on others. The goal is therefore to motivate
change, through an evaluating of fellow team members on characteristics such as
openness, co- operation and behavioural comments, to improve the functioning
within the team.
When applying feedback, M. Hequet, L. Smith, E. Van Velsor and S.J. Wall
(Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 221-222) suggests the creation credible
and effective feedback systems through:
 Relating feedback to the existing performance goals and expectations.
 Specific and concrete feedback that is tied, to either observable behaviour
or measureable results. A focus on specific behaviours and feedback that
is tailored to the individual recipient,
 Channelling feedback to key result areas.
 Providing feedback as quickly as possible as the effect erodes over time.
 Positive feedback for improvement instead of only final results.
 Task oriented feedback instead of people oriented.
 Feedback that is based upon accurate and reliable information.
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
Keeping in mind, that feedback, especially in cross-cultural situations,
often is perceived wrongly or becomes rejected.
The four drives of motivation
The theory of motivational drives is based upon some of the fundamental
emotions present in humans. The four drives presented in this theory (Nohria,
Groysberg, & Lee, 2008), have a direct impact on both behaviour and emotions
when they are either neglected or fulfilled. An important feature of this theory is
that all drives essentially are independent of one another, and therefore cannot
be ordered in a hierarchy system. This means that in order to achieve maximum
motivational impact; all four drives must be attended.
First, the drive to acquire is defined as an often insatiable drive, as we always
want more, and as a relative drive, as people are prone to compare their own
success and achievement to that of others. Organisations can address this drive
through a reward system, that effectively can discriminate between poor and
good performance, and which offers possibilities of advancement.
Secondly, the drive to bond accounts for large positive and negative boosts in
motivation that is driven by the desire to bond with larger collectives. The way
an individual feel within the organisation, is therefore an important feature of
motivation, and can be fulfilled by creating an environment that encourages
teamwork, collaboration, openness and friendships, as it minimises the
occurrence of negative emotions, that creates a loss of morale.
Third, is the drive to comprehend, which is defined as the desire to understand
and explain situations through the creation of theories and accounts that can
suggest reasonable actions and responses. In organisational context, motivation
is created through job design that effectively challenge and enables growth and
learning, as it stimulates the desire to make a meaningful contribution.
Fourth, is the drive to defend, which in this theory, has been extended from the
aggressive and defensive behaviour, which is also present in animals. To include
the desire to create institutions, which promotes justice, that have clear goals
and intentions, and that allows the expression of ideas and opinions, as to
increase confidence and the sense of security.
The four drives of motivation model (Nohria, Groysberg, & Lee, 2008) theorizes a
more complex system of both managerial and organisational factors than
anticipated. As research showed, that the perception of immediate managers,
was just as important as the four emotional drives, and that managers was rated
according to their ability to correctly address all four drives. According to the
research, employees also have a realistic view of the manager’s possibilities, and
what managers should be capable of doing in order to meet their subordinate’s
basic needs.
Literature review
Impact of feedback and incentives
The research provided by (Drake, Wong, & Salter, 2007) builds upon past
research that posits, that performance feedback and reward systems can have a
significant impact on the perceived employee empowerment, task motivation
and overall performance. (Glew, 1995)
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In order to widen the scope of research (Drake, Wong, & Salter, 2007) have
included the front line workers, because of their critical position concerning
organisational performance, as their participation in all phases of manufacturing
have increased significantly (Banker & Potter, 1993).
The research of (Drake, Wong, & Salter, 2007) includes how three specific types
of feedback and two alternative rewards schemes, affect the different
dimensions of empowerment.
The results derived from the study of (Drake, Wong, & Salter, 2007) shows that
the dimensions affected by feedback and rewards had distinct differences.
According to their data, the perceived impact of financial feedback was
significantly positive, while the perceived impact of performance-based rewards,
had a significantly negative effect on both self-determination and perceived
competence.
(Drake, Wong, & Salter, 2007) Was further able to uncover some implications as
to what techniques to employ, to increase the perception of empowerment
among non management employees, as high levels of motivation, was only
connected with a high level of perceived impact.
Participation, Financial incentives and goal setting in motivating employees
In this part, I will go through different motivational articles that have a focus on
how motivation occurs under the practice of participation, financial incentives
and goal setting.
First, participation is broadly defined as a conscious and intended effort from the
higher levels of an organisation, to provide a more visible and role expanding
environment, that encourages the lower hierarchy levels to participate or gain a
stronger voice in the areas of organisational performance (Glew, 1995).
Research provided by (Spector, 1986) have shown that an employee who has a
high perceived control at work, are generally more satisfied, motivated and more
committed to the organisation itself. (Perry, Mesch, & Paarlberg, 2006) Presents
additional studies, as to explain that the perception of being heard will create a
stronger impact on employee satisfaction, than the perception of improvement
in decision quality. According to research, participation will have a positive
effect, the effect will however only have a limited impact on the employees
overall performance (Perry, Mesch, & Paarlberg, 2006).
Second is the effect of financial incentive, which according to a Meta analysis
study performed by (Stajkovic, 2003), showed that performing organisational
behaviour intervention with monetary incentives improved social recognition
17%, feedback 10%, and task performance had a total increase of 23 %.
(Stajkovic, 2003) Further found that when applied together, feedback, monetary
rewards and social recognition, had a stronger positive impact on performance.
In a second meta-analysis that had a focus on the differences between
manufacturing and service industries, Stajkovic, Alexander D., and Fred Luthans.
Which are presented in (Perry, Mesch, & Paarlberg, 2006) for finding, that where
manufacturing organisations produce a strong effect through a combination of
financial, nonfinancial and social rewards, service organisations produces the
strongest effect through financial reinforcers.
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As for goal setting theory (Locke, 2002) argues that challenging goals, have the
possibility of stimulating high performance. The research presented by (Locke,
2002) suggests, that task complexity and the dynamic and interdependent
nature of tasks, have a chance of creating profound implications for the goals, as
too difficult goals, can lead to a decreased performance. (Locke, 2002) Instead
suggests goals that embrace the “do your best” mentality, or the encouragement
of the exploration of strategies as to tackle tasks, as that leads to improved
performance.
Review of the Impact of Financial and Nonfinancial rewards of Employee
Motivation
Aim and theoretical background of study
The study of (Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011), aims to find if there is a difference
in the motivational impact, of financial and nonfinancial rewards system on
employee motivational levels, as a proper understanding of the motivational
impact and relationship, can help to formulate strategies, that can improve the
working environment, productivity and organizational success.
(Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011) Argues that the challenge of creating a
motivational environment is, that employees must be targeted in a variety of
ways. This has meant the inclusion of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory X of management styles. The later theory is
according to (Buelens-Sinding-Waldstrøm, 2010, s. 18-19), a description of two
management styles, where theory X is indicative of close supervision, as it is
assumed, that employees dislike and avoids work, while theory Y contains a
more positive assumption, where employees are viewed as self-motivating,
responsible and creative.
Financial rewards
Financial rewards are presented in (Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011), as being a
basic motivator because of the notion, that people attend work in the
anticipation of monetary gain, as a mean to attain or continue a certain lifestyle.
In that relation, financial rewards are seen as having less long-term impact than
nonfinancial rewards in jobs with satisfactory salary, (Dewhurst, Guthridge, &
Mohr, 2009) further implies that the motivational impact of financial rewards
are short term, and carries the possibility of creating negative outcomes.
Elisa F. Topper1, which is presented in (Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011) argues
that the employees’ sense of accomplishment is replaced with monetary
rewards, which has the effect of creating a decrease in employee motivation.
(Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011) Does however argue, that in high stress working
environments, the usage of monetary rewards, might be critical in creating
positive motivational impact.
Keeping staff motivated in tough times. New Library World, Vol. 110 Issue 7/8,
pp.385 - 387 published in 2009 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1
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Nonfinancial rewards
(Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011) Defines nonfinancial rewards as being of little
cost to the organization, while being a critical motivator to employees. They
argue that nonfinancial rewards, creates an environment where employees feels
informed and valued, while creating a feeling of employee ownership, and
ultimately have the possibility of leading to a sense of accomplishment2.
Denka, A. Further argues that while investment in training and development
programs stimulates the organizational loyalty and morality through employee
growth, managers must still be selective in their delegation of tasks and
responsibility, as to ensure, that the employees will benefit from the experience.
Denka, A. offers that routine tasks have a high possibility of creating an
undesired motivational effect, as they do not offer an adequate challenge, and
therefore does not create professional growth.
Milne, P. (Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011) argues that the inclusion of employee
inputs when creating a reward system is of great importance, as it will encourage
the commitment of employees, and the accountability of the reward system
itself.
Results of study
The diagrams included here, have been created by the author of this report, and
have been created using data supplied by the study of (Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw,
2011), which have been created as a scale system between 0-10, and it is based
on 186 responses, which accounts for an answering percentage of slightly more
than 20%.
Financial rewards
Figure 2
2 Denka,
A. Boosting employee morale: Luxury or bottom-line concern in today’s
economy? Corporate Finance Review, 14(2), 16-19. 2009
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As one might see from the data presented by (Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011), the
diagram indicates that participants prefer the more solid financial rewards, as
they have stronger motivational impacts. These results, might be an indication of
the value, that is contributed to reliable and tangible rewards
Nonfinancial rewards
Figure 3
The results of nonfinancial rewards indicate that growth and management
opportunities that keeps employees engaged in the workplace are highly valued,
along with organisations, that are capable of creating a work/life balance,
education opportunities and offers training and professional development
opportunities. This is important information, as this according to theory
presented, creates more loyal and productive orientated employees.
As one might see from the diagrams, the average score from financial and
nonfinancial rewards indicate, that overall nonfinancial rewards are regarded as
more important than financial rewards. (Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011, s. 18)
Further offers data, that directly shows a difference in preference of 8,14%.
Additional survey data
(Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011) Further offers data, in the form of eight
questions, as a means to highlight employee agreement or disagreement with
statements concerning the motivational impact of actions an organisation might
perform.
This data, have been created on the basic of a six-scale questionnaire, and have
been divided between financial and nonfinancial statements.
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Figure 4
Figure 5
First, the financial diagram which clearly shows the importance of financial
compensation in return for work, which strengthens the assumption, that
financial rewards have basic motivational possibilities. It should however be
noticed that the average score for the nonfinancial statements, are 9.54% higher
than the financial statements.
(Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011) Argues that this higher agreement with the
nonfinancial statements can be attributed to the feelings of appreciation that are
created through the nonfinancial rewards.
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Conclusion of study
(Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw, 2011) Concludes that they have found significant proof,
that nonfinancial rewards systems have a stronger motivational impact, as it is
valued higher than financial rewards. Overall their data showed that four out of
six financial rewards, scored lower than the average nonfinancial rewards. They
do however note that the importance of creating a diversified motivational
system of both financial and nonfinancial rewards system has not declined, as
employees require both monetary and non-monetary reward systems to become
motivated.
A walkthrough of the evolution of motivational theories and incentive systems
The fundamental theories: 1900-1969
The first motivational and incentive theories began in the period of scientific
management, where the work itself was researched with the goal of optimization
and efficiency. Under this system, the worker was viewed upon as lazy and
opposed to work. In order to change this perceived attitude, a pay for
performance system was created, were the employee became motivated to work
harder, as it lead to monetary gain.
Mid-century, we see the creation of more employee orientated motivational
theories, that seeks to understand employee motivation through the creation of
management and need theories, that can explain how to achieve desired
employee behaviour. The hierarch of needs theory, the Two-factor theory and
Theory X and Y, which were a product of Maslow, Herzberg and McGregor
respectively, falls under the content theory, which together with the expectancy
theory, was put forward to answer what really motivate people. (Hilmarsson &
Rikhardsson, 2011, s. 3-4)
Some Criticism emerges – 1970-1979
In this period, the emergence of a more psychological approach to employee
motivation is emphasised, as it is argued, that is it through the deeper
understanding of human nature, needs and expectations, that appropriate
measures might be developed to effectively improve performance, while creating
a feeling of job satisfaction.
Deci3 (Hilmarsson & Rikhardsson, 2011, s. 4) did in this period build upon the
Two factor theory by Herzberg, and found that combining intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations, could create inferior motivation. Deci found that satisfying one
motivator, would detract the value employees attached to the other, while the
superiority of intrinsic motivations, would be suffocated by the extrinsic
motivators.
Meyer4 (Hilmarsson & Rikhardsson, 2011, s. 4) offers some criticism to the cash
bonus incentive systems, as he argues, that they create a demotivating
environment that leaves employees unhappy with the rewards they receive.
Meyer offers three explanations to why this happens and an alternative cash
bonus system.
3 Deci,
E. (1976). The Hidden Cost of Reward. Organizational Dynamics, 4 (3), pp.
61-74.
4 Meyer, H. (1975). The Pay-for-Performance dilemma. Compensation Review, 7
(3), pp. 55-63.
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First, Meyer argues that the usage of self evaluating employees damage
motivation, as employees often will rate their performance to be higher than
average, and therefore expects a cash bonus that they are often not entitled to.
When this expectation is not fulfilled, the employee is left with the sense of being
wronged, or not being important to the organisation.
Secondly, scenarios of considerable cash bonuses leads to decreases in
performance, as the attention will shift away from the work itself, and instead
revolve around the bonus. Thirdly, the competition for bonuses, creates a hostile
working environment, where the performance of others is unfavourable
distorted.
As a means to counter these scenarios, Meyer suggests a system where gradual
pay raises are awarded to good performers, along with promotions, increased
responsibility and the possibility for professional growth.
A shift towards management motivation and strategy: 1980-1989
In the nineteen eighties, the focus shifts from the common worker incentives, to
management incentives, as a means to tackle the agency problem, and to link
rewards directly to strategy.
It is in this period, it is suggested by Stonich5 (Hilmarsson & Rikhardsson, 2011,
s. 6) that the implementation of incentive systems that rewards on a long-term
basis, and on the achievement of strategic goals should be implemented within
organisations. In order to achieve this, Stonich suggests three different
approaches, where he suggests that the measurements used should differ
accordingly to the strategy used. The second suggestion is rewarding long-term
success, with stock or stock options to managers. The third approach is about
encouraging managers to make good long-term investments without
consideration of short-term goals, by separating capital expenditure towards
strategic growth from the performance measurements.
Kanungo and Mendonca6 (Hilmarsson & Rikhardsson, 2011, s. 7) further argues,
that because managers are using content theory to construct incentive systems,
they cannot improve the incentive systems, as the actual motivational impact of
the cash bonus is unknown. Instead it is suggested that the expectancy theory
should be applied, as the additional analytical data, can provide information on
the actual motivational power, giving the possibility of discovering the optimal
cash bonus and thereby creating optimal motivation.
Strategy and globalization: 1990-1999
Some attention on the role of incentive systems, when concerning strategy still
existed in the nineties, as they strove to explain whether strategy dominated the
choice of incentive system, or if the systems themselves could support the
implementation and overall maintenance of the strategy.
5 Stonich,
P. (1981). Using Rewards in Implementing Strategy. Strategic
Management Journal, 2 (4), 345-353.
6 Kanungo, R. N., & Mendonca, M. (1988). Evaluating Employee Compensation.
California Management Review, 31 (1), pp. 23-40.
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Rajagopalan7, which was based on an earlier study8, showed that companies
could benefit from creating cash bonus systems, which were tied to the
organisational strategy. Interestingly he also finds that the long-term impacts of
these different incentives are relatively small, and mainly serves the purpose of
aligning manager behaviour, with that of the organisation. (Hilmarsson &
Rikhardsson, 2011, s. 8)
Interested in the non-monetary rewards, Gupta and Singhal9 finds that
organisations, that base their operation on the innovation of their employees,
have a much greater reliance on non-monetary rewards to motivate their
employees. This is a notion that is supported by Nelson10 as it is argued, that
non-monetary reward makes economic sense as they have limited costs, and
have the same influence as monetary rewards. He does warn that non-monetary
rewards follow rules similar to those of monetary rewards. First, non-monetary
rewards should be based on some incentive system, which should be connected
to the organisations strategy, and then assigned based on strategic
measurements, as not to be perceived as random by the employee (Hilmarsson &
Rikhardsson, 2011, s. 9).
(Bento & White, 1998) Does under this period argue that in order to create
motivation, incentive systems that aim to encourage specific behaviour, has to
take into consideration the individual values, as it otherwise can lead to a revolt
against the system, or higher than anticipated expenses.
Strategy and Herzberg’s theory: 2000-2010
Boyd and Salamin11 finds in a study of organisation outside the US, that
organisations using a growth strategy, make greater use of incentive systems,
and with a added element of hierarchy that, high ranking managers within these
organisations also received the highest cash bonuses. This indicates that there
might be a global linkage between incentive systems and strategy (Hilmarsson &
Rikhardsson, 2011, s. 9-10).
Chiang and Birtch12 argue that culture is not a predominant factor concerning
incentive systems, as they find that cultural reactions to incentive systems are
Rajagopalan, N. (1997). Strategic Orientation, Incentive Plan Adoption, and
Firm Performance: Evidence from Electric Utility Firms. Strategic Management
Journal, 18 (10), 761-786.
7
Rajagopalan, N., & Finkelstein, S. (1992). Effects of Strategic Orientation and
Environmental Change on Senior Management Reward Systems. Strategic
Management Journal, 13, 127-142.
9 Gupta, A. K., & Singhal, A. (1993, May/June). Managing human resources for
innovation and creativity. Research Technology Management, 36 (3), pp. 41-49.
10 Nelson, B. (1995). Motivating employees with informal awards. Management
Accounting, 77 (5), pp. 30-35.
11 Loyd, B., & Salamin, A. (2001). Strategic reward systems: A contingency model
of pay system design. Strategic Management Journal, 22 (8), 777-793.
12 Chiang, F., & Birtch, T. (2007). The transferability of management practices:
Examining cross-national differences in reward preferences. Human Relation, 60
(9), pp. 1293-1331
8
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not as predictable as suggested by former researchers, as the reaction of people
from vastly different cultures might be similar.
It is therefore suggested that organisations conduct thorough research before
introducing incentive system in other cultures.
(Bassett-Jones & Lloyd, 2005) Look into Herzberg’s theory, and find that the
intrinsic motivators are still superior to those of extrinsic nature. They do
however also find that recognition is no longer an intrinsic motivator, as it no
longer generates satisfaction, thereby granting it the characteristic of an
extrinsic motivator.
Last I would include the study of Lowenstien and Mazar13, who argues that large
monetary bonuses can hurt performance in task concerning cognitive thinking.
They point to the theory of optimum stimulation, which claims that there is
stimulation, that when missed, leads to drops in performance, as the employee
will either not be stimulated enough to perform, or the employee will feel
pressurised to worker harder than possible (Hilmarsson & Rikhardsson, 2011, s.
10-12).
Analytical part
Background for study
The background for this study begins in the 1960’s, where the economy was on
the rise. In Denmark this meant a heavy increase in production demands, which
created a hostile work environment, were employees were quickly being worn
down. The workforce was able to retaliate to this development through mass
strikes, and cooperation with local organisations, students and academics, that
helped create awareness around the environmental problems, through critical
work environment reports.
In the early 1970’s, it became the understanding, that it was becoming
increasingly important to focus on a health improving work environment, as
research had found, that there was a relationship between a bad working
environment and health issues (Hansen & Jensen, 2001). This research resulted
in 1977, in the in the acceptance of a work environmental law, that allowed the
government, to actively become involved in psychological straining parts of the
working environment (Jensen, Leksikon.org, 2001).
In the 1980’s, the development in Denmark stopped, as a new government had
been elected. This new government reflected the opinion of the opposing
employers and public institutions, that was against the interference in their
organisational structure, and who denied the possibility of increasing profit by
improving the working environment, even though several employers had proven
the benefits of creating a more open and healthy working environment. The
election of this government, managed to halt the development until the early
1990’s, while Danish law during that period, was reshaped in a European Union
picture (Hansen & Jensen, 2001).
Ariely, D., Gneezy, U., Lowenstein, G., & Mazar, N. (2009). Large Stakes and Big
Mistakes. Review of Economic Studies , 451–469.
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When the change to a social democratic government became a reality in 1993, it
again became important from a government perspective, to look into the
psychological working environment problems. This was however still heavily
opposed, as it was claimed that it opposed the institutions leadership rights
(Jensen, Leksikon.org, 2001).
In 1997, in an attempt to create a compromise, it was therefore agreed that the
Danish working environment authority, would be allowed to interfere in the
psychological working environment problems, that was created directly from the
completion of the work task, while they were not allowed to interfere in the
governing, or co-operation conditions of the institutions (Jensen, Leksikon.org,
2001).
The interest to improve organisations was however already beginning in 1991,
as Denmark slowly started a program called Det Udviklede Arbejde14, which was
meant to further develop the Danish working environment.
The DUA was created as a response to the heighted international competition
situation, which had the result of creating the need to improve the public
organisational structure by cutting jobs, but without the loss of service levels,
while also concerning itself with the private employers desire to improve
production performance, through a better handling of work related resources, a
reduction in the middle management layers, and a overall better delegation of
competences (Jensen, Leksikon.org, 2001).
DUA was however more a vision than a operational concept, which complicated
any practical experiments conducted, which therefore resulted in DUA being
defined as a failure by the Danish government in 1999, as it was not seen as
providing much additional information for developing an understanding of DUA,
as a development vision or strategy, that was capable of differentiating itself
from other strategies, that sees the inclusion of workers as a necessity for
creating motivation and improving organizational performance (Jensen,
Leksikon.org, 2001). The failure of DUA can be attributed to the lack of method,
which resulted in the working environment aspect often being neglected all
together. The results of DUA, were also know to be random, as some
organisations experienced chaos and conflicts, where others experienced the
creation of a flatter hierarchal organisational structure where employees often
felt that they gained more competences (Jensen, Leksikon.org, 2001).
Data provision
In order to explain and analyse the development of the Danish working
environment, I will argue for the necessity of using periodically data, in order to
enable the possibility of creating both an in depth and well argued analysis.
For this purpose, I have chosen to use the research provided by Det Nationale
Forskningscenter for Arbejdsmiljø15, which of 1990, have created a five year
periodically study on the Danish working environment.
14Det
Udviklede Arbejde or DUA – The Developed work, promoted by LO
(landsorganisation) as a vison to improve work through the creation of
individualistic organisations, that promotes professional growth and the
inclusion of workers in the decision process as a way to improve motivation and
performance.
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The questionaries’ that I will use for this study, is the result of a cooperation
between Finland, Sweden, UK, USA, Denmark and the Netherlands, were sixteen
questionnaires have been dissembled in order to create one questionnaire at 141
questions and 30 dimensions, were both the physical and psychical working
environment is covered.
The data extracted from these questionnaires have however been subject to
changes over time, and the focus of this study will therefore mainly be for the
development in the period of 2000-2005 (Kristensen, 2001).
To present this data, diagrams have been created, that shows the partial to
complete agreement with the statements provided in the questionnaires, while
providing the raw data in the form of dimension separated tables, which can be
located in the appendix.
I will in the analysis define significant change, be it positive or negative, as at
least a five-percentage change.
I have further chosen to include a diagram in the appendix, which shows the
average data for each dimension, as to help create an overview of the
dimensions, and their development.
Development in the working environment in the period of period of 1990
and 2000
I will in this section, only perform a brief analysis of the development in the
working environment, because the data from the study of 1990 and 1995 is
neither freely available nor consistent with data from later studies. I have
therefore chosen to limit this part of my analysis, to the dimensions of 1990 and
1995, that are comparable to those of the 2000 study, as it enables me to create a
brief explanation of how the psychic working environment developed in those
periods, compared to the study of 2000, which includes several additional areas
to analyse.
Figure 6
http://www.arbejdsmiljoforskning.dk/en which is the National Research Center
for the Working Environment or in short NFA
15
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The data needed to create this diagram, which shows the development of the
psychic working environment in the periods of 1990, 1995 and 2000 have been
provided by (Burr, Bach, Borg, & Villadsen, 2002, s. 23)
As briefly touched, there is some inconsistency between the different periods, as
seen in the lack of role conflict in 1990. We can however see that in 1995, there
is significant agreement, with the statement of role conflict being a problem in
Danish organisations, which further increases into the period of 2000.
The dimension, concerning the amount of attention works requires, can be seen
to fluctuate with significant changes over the different periods, and in 2000, we
can see that work requires a significant higher amount of attention, than in
either of the other periods. Which indicates that the workload in Denmark is
increasingly requiring workers being able to concentrate over longer period of
time.
On a more positive note, the inclusion of the significant improvements, which is
located in the amount of information given to workers, and the decrease in
workers not allowed to construct their own work, clearly shows a improving
working environment, where workers are getting included more in the
organisation, and have increased responsibility. The no talking with colleagues
and job insecurity, are likewise slowly decreasing, which ultimately is helping to
improve the psychic working environment, and have the benefit of improving
employee sense of belonging, and performance.
Development in the working environment in the period of 2000 and 2005
Because of the sheer amount of data, and the complications of providing the
reader with a proper understanding of not just the dimensions, but also the data
itself, I have chosen to separate the dimensions, and so that I may explain them
separately, as it creates a opportunity for better overview and overall
understanding.
Quantitative demands
The quantitative demands, is defined as the relationship between work, and the
time there is available for its completion. This means that, in cases of limited
time for the completion of a task, a higher speed of work is demanded. In work
situations, this will often result in the need to bring work home, or stay after
hours, which can end in a decrease in the quality of work or the delegation of
unfinished tasks to others (NFA, 2011).
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Figure 7 - Quantitative Demands
Quantitative Demands
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
86.30%
88.90%
74.80%
65.90%
66.60%
38.70%
53.70%
39.70%
2000
2005
Is it necessary to Is your work How often does it Is it necessary to
work very fast? unevenly given, happen, that you work extra?
so that it grows? do not manage to
complete all
tasks?
As can been seen from the diagram, the need to work fast, is not only deemed
high by almost the entire working force, it still increases during the analysis
period. If we look at table 1 in the appendix, we can even see that the part of the
working force, that always have to work fast, increases to almost the double in
this five-year period, while he amount of workers who have rarely or never have
to work fast, decreases.
Second, we can see that during this period, that overall work related task are
given more evenly, decreasing the likelihood of getting behind work. It should
however be noticed that according to the data presented in table 1, that while
this part of the dimension is generally improving, the amount of workers that
often receive unevenly given tasks is growing.
The third part of the dimension, has not significant changes as such, an argument
that is supported by the data in table 1 that shows that the only real increase, is
in the amount of workers that sometimes does not manage to complete all tasks.
The fourth and last part of this dimension shows, that the necessity for
additional work has decreased significantly over this period.
Sub-conclusion
I will argue that overall the psychic working environment has experienced a
slight improvement in this period, as the improvement of delegation of tasks and
need to work extra, creates a more manageable environment, where the
employees have a better idea about how big an amount of work to expect, an the
hours needed to fulfil these tasks. The reason that I do not state this as an big
improvement, is because of the significant increase there has been in workers
that need to work fast at all times, which adds to the creation of a stressful
environment, where more task related mistakes are to be expected.
Cognitive demands
This dimension is about making decisions, remembering, idea creation and
having a great overview, and is mostly found in areas of management, research,
teaching, communication and project work (NFA, 2011).
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Figure 8 - Cognitive Demands
Cognitive Demands
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
92.50%
91.20%
91.10%
61.50%
94.30%
81.50%
84.40%
65.70%
2000
2005
Do you have to Does your work Does your work Does your work
have a overview demand that you demand, that you demand that you
of several things make though remember a lot?
are good at
at a time, in your
decisions?
getting ideas?
work?
First, we can see that work overall demands an ability to oversee several things
at once. This need while decreasing slightly in this period has no significant
changes, as it can also be seen from table 2 of the appendix.
Second, we can see that there is as slight increase in the amount of workers that
has experienced the need to make though decisions in their work. From table 2,
we can however also see a significant increase in the workers that never
experiences this need.
We can see from the third part of the dimension that work, overall demands a
strong ability to remember. Which increases slightly over this period to
encompass almost the entire working population. From table 2, it can be seen
that there are no directly significant changes.
Lastly, it can be seen that the amount of workers that need to provide ideas at
work, includes a major part of the working population, and that they have
experienced an increase over time. From table 2 it can further be seen, that this
increase can be attributed to the amount of workers that sometimes contributes,
as the amount of workers, that always contributes is dwindling.
Sub-conclusion
I will argue that his dimensions shows a steady increase in the responsibility
given to employees, as the areas of the dimension concerning decisions,
remembering and the creation of ideas all improve during this period.
The benefit of this higher responsibility, with the decrease in the need to oversee
several things at once, I will assume creates a working environments with more
loyal and motivated employees, as higher inclusion and responsibility creates a
sense of belonging to an organisation, while the decrease in overview, leaves
more time for individual tasks, which might further decrease the likelihood of
errors.
Emotional demands
This dimension is about the demands that are put to the workers emotions, their
ability to imagine the situation of others, to show compassion and
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understanding. This is an important dimensions, as difficult work related
situations, can have an impact on the employees personal life, the psychic wellbeing and life quality (NFA, 2011).
Figure 9 - Emotional Demands
Emotional Demands
56.00%
54.00%
52.00%
50.00%
48.00%
46.00%
44.00%
42.00%
40.00%
50.30%
51.80%
51.90%
54.10%
50.10%
45.70%
2000
2005
Does your job, bring
you in emotional
straining situations?
Is your job, emotional Are you emotionally
straining?
touched by your work?
The first part of this dimension, is about whether employees are brought in
emotional straining situations, which we can see have increased slightly over
this period. From table 3 of the appendix, we learn that this increase comes from
the amount of workers that sometimes, rare and never experiences this in their
job.
Second, we can see that the amount of workers that experience their job as
emotional straining, is steadily increasing to over half of the working population.
Last, we can from the diagram see a 4% increase in the amount of workers that
are emotionally touched by their work. If one looks a table 3, it is clear that this
increase mainly comes from people that are either often or sometimes affected.
Sub-conclusion
Considering that more workers find that, their work, is affecting them on an
emotional level and consider their work as emotional straining. I will argue that
this dimensions shows a clear degeneration of the working environment, as the
workers personal life and mental health have a risk of being affected by this
development.
Demand to hide Emotions
This dimension is about the need to hide ones emotions and revolves in practice
around the negative reactions or opinions that an employee are demanded to
keep from clients, colleagues or costumers (NFA, 2011).
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Figure 10 - Demand to Hide Emotions
Demand to Hide Emotions
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
45.10%
47.90%
35.70%
36.30%
2000
2005
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Does your job demand that you do
not say your opinion?
Does your work demand that you
hide your emotions?
As can be seen from the diagram, there is only a slight increase in whether ones
job demands an employee to not say opinions. This lack of significant
development is further showed in table 4 from the appendix, where it is visible
that there are no significant changes whatsoever.
Second, the diagram shows a minor increase in the amount of workers that are
demanded to hide their emotions during work. From table 4, it can be seen that
this increase mainly comes from those, that often or sometimes have to hide
their emotions, as those that are always demanded have decreased.
Sub-conclusion
The increase in this dimension, shows that it has become increasingly important
for employees to act friendly and open towards clients, colleagues or costumers,
which I will argue can lead to a unhealthy environment, if there is no limit to
when an employee is allowed to went his/her opinion about a situation, as it
without cannot lead to an improvement or solution of the situation. The
development as a whole can however not be defined as significantly negative, as
the change is only minor.
Influence
The influence one has in the workplace, is one of the more important
dimensions, as research has shown that a low influence in ones work has a direct
influence on employee motivation, performance, productivity and quality (NFA,
2011).
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Figure 11 - Influence
Influence
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
84.70%
80.20%
83.90%
54.30%
46.70%
60.20%
78.10%
48.90%
2000
2005
Do you have a big Do you have
Do you have a
DO you have
influence on
influence on influence on your influence on,
decisions on
whom you have
workload?
what you do at
work?
to work with?
work?
It can be seen from the diagram, that the amount of workers that has an
influence in their work is rather high, and almost contains the entire population.
When we look at table 5 from the appendix, it can see that a major part of this
comes from workers that often have a saying in their working environment.
There has however, been a slight decrease in workers who always or often have
an influence on decisions in work during this research period.
The second part of the diagram shows a significant decrease in the influence,
workers have on whom to work with. From table 5, it can further be seen that
this decrease in influential power, mainly comes from the amount of workers
that always or often have a saying. It can furthermore be seen from the third part
of the diagram and table, that the Danish workers have significantly less
influence on their workload as their influential power have decreased
significantly over the period of this study.
The last part of this dimension shows no significant changes in the diagram, but
according to the table, there has been a significant change, as the amount of
workers that always have an influence, have decreased, while the amount that
often have an influence have had a significant increase.
Sub-conclusion
If can be seen form the diagram and tables, that Danish workers have a rather big
influence on work as a whole, as almost 84 % of the working population claims
to be influential in their work, while also being rather influential in what to do
while at work. I will therefore argue, that the development in the working
environment has not decreased by as much as one might first initially assume, as
the main decreases within the dimension, are located with workers that always
or often have a saying, while increasing with those that sometimes are
influential. The decrease in the dimension is however still significant, and it
should therefore be assumed that motivation, performance, productivity and
quality of work, have decreased as a result of workers being less able to
construct their work day, and have less power over assigned tasks.
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Growth opportunity
Research shows the importance of stimulating growth and creating growth
opportunities, as employees without, tend to do worse than their counterparts,
have more sick leave and health problems. This dimension is together with the
dimension of influence, an important part of previously mentioned program
DUA.
Figure 12 - Growth Opportunity
Growth Opportunity
98.00%
96.00%
94.00%
92.00%
90.00%
88.00%
86.00%
84.00%
82.00%
80.00%
94.40%
96.20%
87.30%
90.90%
90.40%
91.50%
88.30%
2000
85.80%
Is your work
varied?
2005
Does your work Do you have the Can you use your
demand that you opportunity to skills or abilities
are initiative?
learn through
on your work?
your work?
The diagram shows that employees during the period of this study have
increased slightly to nearly encompass the entire population on almost all parts
of the dimension.
It can be seen from table 6 of the appendix, that the three parts that are
experiencing the minor increases are similar in a way, as they all decrease for
workers that always receive varied work, are required to be initiative or if they
can use their skills or abilities during work.
The only decrease can be found with workers actually receiving the possibility
for growing or learning through work. From table 6, it can be seen that there are
significant decreases for employees that always or often receive learning
opportunities, while there is a significant increase in employees that sometimes
receive this opportunity.
Sub-conclusion
We see from the diagram and table that the growth opportunities available for
Danish workers, have experienced positive development on all aspects but the
prospect of learning through work, which according to theory of four drives,
might affect the workers desire to make a meaningful contribution within their
organization. The overall development of the dimension is however positive, and
I will therefore argue that the incentive received by workers for growing within
their work, has increased during the period of study.
Meaning in work
Lack of meaning in work, is seen as one of the main stressors of work. As being
able to see a meaning with ones work, means that one can relate it to some
values or goals that are beyond the monetary gain and being employed.
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Meaningful work can therefore be said to make it easier to look beyond the
problems one might encounter during the work day, making sure that one is not
focused on the negative aspects of work (NFA, 2011).
Figure 13 - Meaning in Work
Meaning in Work
100.00%
99.00%
98.00%
97.00%
96.00%
95.00%
94.00%
93.00%
92.00%
91.00%
99.20%
96.10%
96.90%
98.00%
96.70%
2000
94.20%
Are your working tasks Do you feel, that you
important?
offer an important
contribution?
2005
Do you feel engaged
and motivated in your
work?
As can be seen from the diagram, organizations seem to have incorporated these
factors to a great extend in Denmark, as they all are close to capturing the entire
working population, with only small increases or decreases during the period of
research.
First, we can see that the importance of working tasks, as the only part of the
dimension that has improved over this period.
Second, it is visible from table 7 of the appendix, that the amount of workers that
feel that they offer an important contribution to their work, have had a major
decrease in the amount of workers agreeing in a very high degree.
Last, we see that employees have had a significant decrease in feeling engaged
and motivated in their work, where it can be seen from table 7 that, it is mainly
due to a decrease in workers agreeing very strongly.
Sub-Conclusion
While this dimension shows a negative development, it should be noted that this
development is not large enough to be deemed significant, and it should
therefore be concluded that, the meaning of ones work has not decreased during
this period.
Involvement in work
This dimension is closely connected with the previous one, as this one also
concerns itself with engagement, motivation and meaning. But contrary to
meaning in work, this dimension revolves around the individuals’ involvement in
work. Behind this dimension, is the desire to integrate the individual at the
workplace, as it will make them identify themselves more with the goals of their
workplace.
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Figure 14 - Involvement in Work
Involvement In Work
86.00%
84.00%
82.00%
80.00%
78.00%
76.00%
74.00%
72.00%
70.00%
68.00%
82.30%
77.10%
84.60%
80.00%
75.00%
2000
74.70%
Do you enjoy telling
others about your
workplace?
Do you feel, that the
problems of the
workplace are also
yours?
2005
Do you think that your
workplace has a big
personal meaning to
you?
From the diagram, we can see that Danish workers are rather well integrated
into the working environment, as all aspects seem to envelop a big portion of the
working population.
The first and third part of this dimension does however only show a minor nonsignificant increase in the dimensions, while the second part has experienced a
slight decrease. From table 8 in the appendix, it is further visible that the only
significant change in any of these dimension parts, is the drop of 5% from 20002005, in the very high degree agreement, that the problems of the workplace is
also the workers.
Sub-conclusion
On basis of this data, it can be concluded that the desire one feels to bond with
their organization (Nohria, Groysberg, & Lee, 2008), cannot be deemed to have
significantly improved over this period. I will however include that the positive
developments suggests, a working environment, where workers are increasingly
receiving incentives for becoming more integrated into their organizations.
Predictability
This dimension is another of the main dimensions concerning stress, as research
has shown that a lack of predictability is one of the major factors behind a
stressful working environment. This dimension therefore concerns itself with
whether workers receive information about important changes or the necessary
information for the proper completion of tasks (NFA, 2011).
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Figure 15 – Predictability
Predictability
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
89.30%
75.30%
90.00%
76.70%
2000
2005
Do you receive information about Do you receive all the information
important decisions, changes,
necessary to perform work well?
future plans etc. in decent time?
As can be seen from the diagram, almost all Danish workers receive information
about both the important decisions, and the information needed to perform well.
The diagram also shows that there has been a minor positive development
during the period for this study.
From table 9 of the appendix, it is further visible that the first part of this
dimension has decreased slightly for workers that agree very strongly, while
improving significantly for people that partially agree, and slightly for those that
only agreed very poorly.
The second part of the dimension has experienced more or less the same
development, as it also has increased slightly, while having some minor
improvements on all but the very high degree.
Sub-conclusion
The dimension for whether work is predictable, has not developed significantly
during this period, as there have only been minor changes. I will however
include that on the basis of table 9 in the appendix, there has been some
improvements, as less people answer in a very poor degree, which leads to the
assumption that less low-level hierarchy employees are kept in the dark.
Role clarity
Role clarity is one of the more classical dimensions in social psychology, where
every role is characterized by a list of expectations that explains what exactly the
role contains and its tasks. An aspect of role clarity could be where all the
working tasks, and competences needed to complete them are laid out (NFA,
2011).
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Figure 16 - Role Clarity
Role Clarity
99.00%
98.00%
97.00%
96.00%
95.00%
94.00%
93.00%
92.00%
91.00%
90.00%
89.00%
97.10%
97.90%
97.20%
97.70%
97.50%
2000
2005
92.50%
Are there clear goals for Do you clearly know,
your work?
what you areas of
responsibility are?
Do you know exactly
what there is expected
of you at work?
It can be seen from the diagram, that there is a high sense of role clarity in the
Danish working environment, as all parts of this dimensions are close to
including the entire working population.
But as the diagram and table 10 from appendix shows, role clarity has not
improved during the period of this study, as the dimension has had negative
developments on all aspects.
Sub-conclusion
It is my opinion that the decrease on all aspects of the dimensions, justifies the
conclusions, that the dimensions as a whole has experienced a significant
negative development during the period of this study and, that it therefore can
be said, that role clarity as a whole has significantly diminished.
From the diagram we see that a major part of this negative development comes
from the decrease in clarity of goals, which according to goal theory leads to
decrease in performance for both individuals and groups.
Role conflict
This dimension can be separated into two parts, where one revolves around the
contradicting demands a worker might experience, and the ethical conflicts
where a worker is demanded to break the law in order to perform his/her job. It
is therefore important that these conflicts are not present in the working
environment, as they can be long term, and severely straining for the employee
(NFA, 2011).
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Figure 17 - Role Conflict
Role Conflict
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
55.20%
38.30%
44.60%
59.70%
55.30%
68.30%
49.40%
63.40%
2000
2005
Are there put
Do you perform Do you sometimes, Do you sometimes
contradicting
something in your have to perform
have to perform
demands to you in
work that is
something, in
stuff in your work
work?
accepted by some, another way than
that seems
but not by others? you are supposed unnecessary to
to?
you?
The first part of the dimension shows that there during the period for this study,
has been a significant increase in workers feeling, that they are receiving
contradiction demands in their work. It is further visible from table 11 of the
appendix, that less people during this period are rarely receiving contradiction
demands.
The second part of this dimension seems to be the only part that has not
increased significantly during the period. From table 11 it can be seen that there
has only been minor changes within the data.
The third and fourth part of the dimension, has however had significant
increases during this period, and it can from table 11 be seen that there has been
some major increases in the amount of workers, that highly or partly agree with
the statements.
Sub-conclusion
On basis of the brief analysis of the development of role conflicts, I will argue
that the working environment has experienced a significant negative
development during this period. My argumentation for this is that as workers are
receiving significantly more contradicting demands, work tasks that cannot be
solved in the ordinary manner and an increase in unnecessary tasks, there is
increased risk of creating an unhealthier working environment. I have assumed
that this negative development has worsened employee motivation and
performance, as workers are likely to feel immoral and, that their contribution is
not important for the survival of the organization, as there is a big increase in
employees receiving tasks that are deemed unnecessary. This development may
also further the development of stress and job dissatisfaction, and should
therefore be taken into immediate consideration, as it might spiral into internal
conflict.
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Management quality
The importance of proper management quality, and the role of a good manager
are important features if one wishes to secure employee motivation and
satisfaction. This dimension will therefore revolve around how close
management quality affects the psychic working environment (NFA, 2011).
Figure 18 - Management Quality
Management Quality
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
80.20%
79.50%
73.40%
82.80%
79.70%
71.10%
75.10%
74.60%
2000
2005
Making sure that
the individual
employee, has
great growth
opportunities?
At prioritizing
the well being
highly?
At planning
work?
At solving
conflicts?
The first and fourth part of this dimension has not experienced any significant
changes during the period for this study. From table 12 of the appendix, it is
further visible that there have only been minor changes in the numbers as well,
indicating that there has been not any important development in those two
parts.
The second part of the dimension has as the only part increased significantly.
From table 12, one can see that this increase in mainly from workers that in a
high degree feel that the importance of their well-being has increased.
Last, the third part of the diagram shows a significant decrease in manager’s
ability to plan work. From table 12, it is learned that this decrease, is mainly from
participants agreeing partially about manager’s ability to plan work.
Sub-conclusion
If one looks as the development of the dimension as a whole, then there has been
no significant changes or development during this period. I will however argue
that there has been a minor positive development during this period, as I have
assumed, that the high degree increase in the well- being carries a stronger
impact than the decrease in the partial agreement for how well work is planned.
It is therefore also my assumption, that motivation and satisfaction with ones
work has improved during this period.
The importance of resolving the decrease in managers’ ability to plan work
should be included, as a negative perception of managers abilities in just one
area can have a devastating impact on the overall impact, as stated in the Four
Drives of Motivation.
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Social support in work
In psychic social research, lack of social support is one of the main dimensions
for determining stress. Research into this dimension has shown that a lack of
social support results in poorly managing workers, increased stress, sickness
and mortality. This dimension therefore investigates if there is social isolation or
support from either co-workers or managers (NFA, 2011).
Figure 19 - Social Support in Work
Social Support in Work
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
84.20%
80.60%
94.30%
88.00%
88.30%
74.80%
92.00%
79.10%
2000
2005
How often do you How often are How often do you How often is your
receive help and your coworkers receive help and close manager,
support from
willing to listen
support from
willing to listen
coworkers? to your problems
close
to your problems
with work?
management?
with work?
As can be seen from the diagram, a high proportion of the Danish working
population enjoys high amount of social support in their work.
First, we see that the first and second part of this dimension, have decreased
within this period, with the second being significant.
From table 13 of the appendix, it is learned that this negative development is
especially true for those always receiving support or being in the presence of
coworkers that are willing to listen to ones problems.
Second, table 13 shows that while the third and fourth part of this dimension
does not have an increase big enough to be deemed significant, the
improvements are spread on the whole line.
Sub-conclusion
The development during this period shows, that while the interaction with
coworkers have decreased, we have had, an almost similar increase in the
interaction between employees have with their close manager. As a whole it can
therefore be assumed that the dimension has not had a significantly negative
development. I will however stress the importance of the possibility to interact
with ones coworkers, as they can provide an employee with unique, accurate and
reliable feedback that might improve motivation and performance. It should also
be noted that the development of social support in work, indicates that managers
have an increasingly closer relationship to their employees, which in turn
strengthens the employee perception, and the impact of feedback.
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Feedback
This dimension is about getting feedback from colleagues and superiors about
how well you function in the workplace. Most employees, receives indirect
feedback several times a day, where they will have to guess how to understand
and apply it. Feedback have to be specific as to not dilute it or for it to improve
performance or motivation (NFA, 2011).
Figure 20 – Feedback
Feedback
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
52.70%
58.60%
50.00% 61.40%
40.00%
30.00%
2000
20.00%
2005
10.00%
0.00%
How often do you talk with
coworkers, about how well you
perform at work?
How often do you talk with your
superior about how well you
perform at work?
The diagram shows that there have been significant increases on feedback from
both coworkers and superiors during the period of this study.
We can see from table 14 of the appendix, that feedback from coworkers mainly
have increased with employees that sometimes receive it, while feedback
received from superiors, has had a even larger improvement during this period.
Sub-conclusion
If one is to assume that feedback is received in time and in positive situations
rather than negative ones, then it can be argued that there has been a significant
positive development in the working environment from this dimension. I argue
as such, because feedback in positive situations and in time, from both
coworkers and superiors, help improve the sense of accomplishment in an
employee, stimulating their desire to perform more and better in the future.
The increased feedback from superiors might also help improve employee’s
willingness to contribute ideas, as argued by (Bassett-Jones & Lloyd, 2005).
Social Community
This dimension revolves around the social community in the workplace. This is
included, as a major part of employees’ time is spent at the workplace, under the
influence of the environment, and it therefore has a big influence on the mood
and performance of employees (NFA, 2011).
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Figure 21 - Social Community
Social Community
100.00%
98.90%
98.00%
96.00%
97.30%
96.00%
94.00%
94.00%
93.70%
92.00%
92.50%
90.00%
2000
2005
88.00%
Is there a good
atmosphere between
you and your
coworkers?
Is there a good
Do you feel like part of
cooperation between the community at your
colleagues at your
work?
work?
One can se that a high proportion of the working population, is in fact included in
the social community.
It is however also visible, that as a whole the social community has declined
significantly during the period of this study.
If one is to separate the dimension, there has however not been a significant
decrease to any of the parts as such.
From table 15 of the appendix, it can be seen that it is mainly the section of
always that have decreased throughout this period.
Sub-conclusion
I will argue that when evaluated as whole, the dimension has experienced a
significant negative development during this period. This is further supported by
table 15, which shows that it is becoming less common, being a part of the social
community. This development should be corrected, as further negative
development, will cause workers to feel excluded from the organization, which
will negatively affect the performance and motivation of those workers that feel
like less part of the organization. I will assume, that the decease in the social
community is connected to the decrease in social support received from
coworkers.
Insecurity at work
This dimension is about the insecurity workers might feel, as the Danish
workplace does not have strong traditions for protection the employees against
firing or transfers. According to studies, the security of an employee is instead
dependent on the economic situation and the demand for workers in the exact
area of employment (NFA, 2011).
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Figure 22 - Insecurity at Work
Insecurity at Work
50.00%
45.00%
40.00%
35.00%
30.00%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%
43.70%
27.40%
21.50%
24.80%
15.50%
5.60%
15.00%
Becoming
unemployed?
16.80%
2000
2005
That because of Facing difficulties
Getting
new technology, finding a new job
transferred
you become
in case of
against your will?
replaced?
unemployment?
We can see from the diagram that the only significant changes during this period
is the increase in fear of becoming replaced by new technology and the belief
that one might face difficulties finding a new job in case of unemployment.
Workers have in this period only placed a minor increase in fears of becoming
unemployed or getting transferred against their will.
Sub-conclusion
On basis of the data provided, I will argue, that there has been a significantly
negative development in the amount of security workers have in their jobs.
Whether this increase in insecurity can be attributed to the IT crisis of early
2001, which changed the economic situation, is unclear from the data provided.
This increase in insecurity at work is however damaging to the working
environment, it is know from theory, that workers are not motivated in market
or industries where they are insecure about their future prospects.
Job satisfaction
The dimensions of job satisfaction is known as the general goal for quality of the
working environment and have been applied in several investigations. A low
satisfaction in ones job is here connected with stress, being burned out, sick
leave, a bad health, a high medicine consumption and bad productivity (NFA,
2011).
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Figure 23 - Job Satisfaction
Job Satisfaction
100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
82.20%
75.40%
88.30%
79.10%
76.30%
82.80%
92.90%
88.40%
2000
2005
Your future
prospects?
The physicworking
environment?
The way, that
your abilities are
used?
Your job,
everything
considered?
First, we can see that there has been a significant decrease in the amount of
workers that are satisfied with their future prospects. From table 17 in the
appendix, one might see that this decrease, mainly but not exclusively comes
from the satisfied section. We also see a significant decrease in the amount of
workers that deem that their abilities are not being used to the full extend.
Secondly, we see from the diagram, that the second and fourth part of the
dimension has not had any significant changes during the period. Table 17 does
however further highlight, that there has happened decrease, which can be
located with workers that are very satisfied with the statements.
Sub-conclusion
I will argue that employees satisfaction with their jobs have decreased
significantly over this period, which might indicate that organizations are
neglecting the intrinsic aspects of motivation, that can improve this dimension.
I will however also argue, that the level of satisfaction is still rather high
considering, that the data for this analysis consists of several industries and job
types and research into the development for job types might be necessary to
create a further understanding.
Somatic Stress Symptoms
This dimension is about somatic stress the physiological logical changes it can
inflict on the body. This is important to investigate, as long-term somatic stress
can lead to increases in hearth diseases, and can put a strain on the working
environment, as it also affect ones colleagues. Somatic stress is often connected
to poor management quality (NFA, 2011).
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Figure 24 - Somatic Stress Symptoms
Somatic Stress
60.00%
51.80%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
32.40%
22.80%
20.00%
2000
2005
12.50%
10.00%
0.00%
9.10%
Had stomach problems
and/or pain?
5.60%
Been dizzy?
Had tensions in
different muscles?
From the diagram, it is clear that there during the period of this study, there has
happened a rather positive development in the dimension of somatic stress, as
all parts have significantly decreased.
It can however be seen from table 19 in the appendix that there has been a
significant increase in the amount of workers that claim to always have muscle
tensions.
Sub-conclusion
I will argue that the positive development in this dimension is rather clear, as all
aspects have improved greatly over this period. It is however concerning that the
amount of workers that experience muscle tensions is still so high, and that it
have experienced an increase in constant muscle tension. My conclusion is
however still, that the improvement in somatic stress reported by workers,
indicate a healthier working environment, where the well being of employees
receive more consideration, an assumption that is supported by the dimension of
management quality.
Cognitive stress symptoms
This dimension is about the thought related processes that might cause stress,
which can be seriously damaging in the working situation, as it increases the risk
of loosing attention and making fatal decisions in pressed situations (NFA, 2011).
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Figure 25 - Cognitive Stress
Cognitive Stress
30.00%
25.00%
18.50%
20.00%
15.00%
24.00%
21.70%
14.90%
16.70%
17.10%
16.70%
10.00%
2000
2005
8.40%
5.00%
0.00%
Had
concentration
difficulties?
Had problems
making
decisions?
Had difficulties
remembering?
Had difficulties
thinking clearly
First, we see that there have been significant decreases in the amount of workers
that have experienced concentration difficulties. From table 20 in the appendix,
it is further learned, that this decrease mainly comes from workers that
sometimes experienced this problem.
Second, there has during this period also been a significant decrease in the
amount of workers that has had problems with making decisions, and difficulties
remembering. From table 20, we can see that while there has been a minor
increase in those always and often having these problems. There has been a huge
improvement at those that sometimes felt these problems.
Last, we see a non-significant increase in those having difficulties thinking
clearly, from table 20, it can however be learned, that this increase comes from a
heavy decline in those that never had those difficulties before.
Sub-conclusion
I will argue that this dimension have developed positively throughout this
period, I will however comment that, the increase in cognitive thinking, might be
a result of faulty stimulation as suggested by Lowenstien and Mazar, where
workers might be pressurized to work harder than possible. This is however just
an assumption, as the data available does not grant the opportunity for
investigation.
Conclusive part
The development of the psychic working environment
First, I will argue that in order to make a supported conclusion for determining
whether the psychic working environment has experienced a positive or
negative development, it is necessary to assume, that each dimension carries the
same weight and impact on the environment as a whole.
With this assumption in place, I will argue that during the period of 1990-2000,
which was briefly analyzed in this study, there was seen a improvement of the
psychic working environment, as the positive changes in information received by
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workers, job security, social community and self construction outweigh the
negative changes, that was seen in role conflicts and attention demanded by
work.
Concerning the main analysis for this study, I will conclude, that the psychic
working environment has not developed positive during the period of the in
depth investigation. I am concluding as such, because the majority of the
dimension, which has been analyzed, showed that workers are increasingly
receiving less positive motivational incentives within their work. It has been
seen from the analysis that workers has less influence in their work, less job
satisfaction, more role conflict, a deterioration of the social community etc.
This development, I will assume can be attributed to the increased demands the
competition situation is placing upon the working environment, and I therefore
find it important to mention, that the positive improvements, that have been
made in areas such as feedback and stress, still carries their motivational and
environmental impact, and therefore should not be disregarded as not being
important improvements of the environment, as their effects can help to soothe
and motivate employees to overcome stressful situations.
Motivational theories and the Danish psychic working environment
During the 1970’s, there was a big change in the general perception of
motivation, as it became increasingly emphasized in motivational research, that
there was a necessity of considering the psychological aspects of work, as it was
found that proper stimulation, could improve employee performance, and their
sense of job satisfaction. In Denmark, we see in this period a similar
development, as it is recognized here, that there is relationship between health
issues and a bad working environment. The realization that the environment had
such an profound effect on the health of workers, meant the acceptance of law in
1977, that actively allowed the government to become involved in psychological
straining parts of the working environment.
In the 1980’s we see that while motivational theories begins to define
management as a separate body that requires motivation and guidance, in order
to construct effective incentive systems, and to make the right organizational
decisions, the development of the psychic working environment in Denmark had
come to a standstill. As the newly elected government, reflected the opinion of
the opposing organizations and institutions, which opposed the increased
interference in their organizational structure, and who contrary to the empirical
evidence, denied the possibility of increasing profit, through an improved
working environment.
In the 1990’s research into motivation found, that in order to encourage a
specific behavior, it was necessary to take into consideration the values of the
individual, as to avoid the occurrence of increased expenses or revolts against
the incentive system. It was further found in this period, that non-monetary
systems, followed the same rules as monetary ones, and had the same influence.
In the 1990’s we see in Denmark, not only the creation of DUA, that was to
function as a response to the heighted international competition situation, but
also the reelection of a government, that desired to improve the working
environment, through governmental laws.
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From the empirical data and literature presented in this study, it is therefore
indicated that not only is the Danish workforce receiving the necessary
incentives for improving the perception and conditions of the psychic working
environment but also, that Danish researchers are actively striving to learn from
past developments, so that they might suggests actions for future improvements.
With the support of the material presented in this study, I therefore argue for the
possibility of a linkage between research into motivational theories, and the
development of the Danish psychic working environment, as it seems that the
development of strategies are necessary for the continued improvement and
understanding of what has an influence, and by how much.
Recommendations
In this section of the report, I would like to state some of my own
recommendations the continued exploration of topic and improvement of report.
First I would recommend a co-operation with NFA, as a means to obtain the raw
data for the psychic working environment of 2010, as the additional data would
enable a more in depth analysis of the development, and grant the possibility of
further concluding, whether Danish organizations, focus more heavily on the
psychic working environment during times of economical crisis, as suggested by
the theory presented in this study.
Second, I would recommend an investigation of the preferences the Danish
workforce has concerning rewards, similar to that of (Kisseloff, Cross, & Shaw,
2011), as it would show whether there are any similarities among the two
groups, that might be useful from a management perspective in todays
international working environment.
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Appendix
Tables For Dimensions 2000/2005
Table 1 – Quantitative Demands
Quantitative demands
Always Often
Sometimes Rare
Never/almost
never
10,1% 3,6%
8,8%
2,7%
16,9% 8,3%
19,1% 16,2%
40,7% 20,6%
41%
19,2%
Is it necessary to work
very fast?
Is your work unevenly
given, so that it grows?
How often does it
happen, that you do not
manage to complete all
tasks?
6,6%
13%
3,9%
3,9%
2,2%
1,3%
35.6%
36,6%
31,7%
39%
12,6
12,1%
44,1%
39,3%
39,2%
23%
23,9%
26,3%
Is it necessary to work
extra?
2,6%
2,4%
21,1% 42,9%
13,7% 37,6%
Cognitive demands
Always
Often
Do you have to have a
overview of several
things at a time, in your
work?
Does your work demand
that you make though
decisions?
Does your work demand,
that you remember a
lot?
Does your work demand
that you are good at
getting ideas?
29,6% 43,8%
29,2% 39%
20,9% 12,1%
29,6% 16,8%
Table 2- Cognitive Demands
5,1%
5,1%
Sometimes Rare
19,1%
23%
22%
34,4%
25,2% 35,4%
6,6%
5,5%
Never/almost
never
0,8%
3.3%
24,9% 6,5%
24,1% 10,3%
33,4% 41,7% 16%
32,1% 44,4% 17,8%
5,6%
3,9%
3,2%
1,9%
18,1% 36,6% 26,8%
14,6% 36,7% 33,1%
12,1% 6,5%
10,9% 4,7%
Table 3 – Emotional demands
Emotional demands
Always Often
Sometimes Rare
Never/almost
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Does your job, bring you
in emotional straining
situations?
Is your job, emotional
straining?
Are you emotionally
touched by your work?
2,6%
2%
17%
16%
30,7%
33,8%
never
31,2% 18,6%
28,9% 19,3%
5,3%
6,4%
5,1%
4,4%
14,3%
15,1%
13,5%
15,9%
26,1%
30,4%
31,5%
33,8%
29%
31,7%
26,4%
28,5%
25,4%
16,5%
23,5%
17,5%
Table 4 - Demand to hide emotions
Demand to hide emotions Always Often Sometimes Rare
Does your job demand
that you do not say your
opinion?
Does your work demand
that you hide your
emotions?
2,2%
1,8%
8,3% 25,2%
9,3% 25,2%
Never/almost
never
30,3% 33,9%
32,4% 31,3%
4,8%
2,6%
6,1% 34,2%
8,9% 36,4%
28,6% 26,2%
30,7% 21,5%
Table 5 - Influence
Influence
Always
Often
Sometimes Rare
Do you have a big
influence on
decisions on
work?
Do you have
influence on
whom you have
to work with?
Do you have an
influence on your
workload?
Do you have
influence on,
what you do at
work?
17,9%
18,1%
42,1%
41,1%
24,7%
24,7%
11,1%
11,4%
Never/almost
never
4,3%
4,7%
10,7%
5,9%
21,8%
16,1%
21,8%
24,7%
22,7%
24,8
23%
28,4%
14,7%
5,1%
21,1%
17,8%
24,4%
26%
24%
30,2%
15,8%
20,9%
24,7%
15,5%
30,8%
35,7%
24,7%
26,9%
14%
14,9%
5,8%
7,1%
Table 6 - Growth Opportunities
Growth opportunities
Always
Often
Sometimes Rare
Is your work varied?
32,2%
30,5%
21,6%
14,1%
42,8%
41%
39,5%
44,5%
14%
19,4%
29,3%
32,9%
Does your work demand
that you are initiative?
7,5%
6,5%
5,8%
6,5%
Never/almost
never
3,6%
2,7%
3,8%
2%
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Do you have the
opportunity to learn
through your work?
Can you use your skills or
abilities on your work?
22,7% 42,6% 23%
16,5% 37,2% 32,1%
8,2%
3,2%
10,5% 3,6%
35,6% 45,5% 13,3%
26,2% 55,2% 14,8%
3,4%
2,4%
2,2%
1,3%
Table 7 – Meaning in Work
Meaning in work
Are your working tasks
important?
Do you feel, that you
offer an important
contribution?
Do you feel engaged and
motivated in your work?
In Very
high
degree
29,3%
22,9%
42,1%
25,9%
I high
degree
Partly
In poor
degree
In very
poor
degree
1,4%
0,7%
0,2%
0,3%
47,9%
53,4%
45,5%
56,6%
18,9%
20,6%
11,6%
15,5%
2,6%
2,5%
0,7%
1,7%
31,4%
20,8%
47,4%
50,2%
17,9% 2,6%
23,2% 4.2%
0,8%
1,5%
In very
poor
degree
4,9%
4%
8,9%
7,6%
Table 8 - Involvement in Work
Involvement in work
Do you enjoy telling others
about your workplace?
Do you feel, that the
problems of the workplace
are also yours?
Do you think that your
workplace has a big
personal meaning to you?
In Very
high
degree
10,2%
7,8%
12.3%
7,3%
I high
degree
Partly
In poor
degree
25,7%
28,2%
26,6%
28,1%
41,2%
44%
36,1%
39,3%
17,9%
16%
16,2%
17,8%
15,7%
13,1%
35,4%
38,4%
31,2% 10,7%
33,1% 11,3%
7,2%
4,2%
Table 9 - Predictability
Predictability
Do you receive information
about important decisions,
changes, future plans etc. in
decent time?
Do you receive all the
information necessary to
perform work well?
In Very
high
degree
14,3%
10,2%
I high
degree
Partly
In poor
degree
25,4%
25,4%
35,6% 16,4%
41,1% 16,9%
In very
poor
degree
8,3%
6,5%
11,9%
9,1%
38,2%
39,5%
39,2% 8,5%
41,4% 8%
2,2%
2%
Table 10 - Role Clarity
Role clarity
In Very
high
I high
degree
Partly
In poor
degree
In very
poor
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Are there clear goals for
your work?
Do you clearly know, what
you areas of responsibility
are?
Do you know exactly what
there is expected of you at
work?
degree
21,3%
15,2%
37,6%
35,2%
54,3%
47.6%
49,2%
48,6%
21,5%
29,7%
11,1%
13,4%
28,6%
21,8%
51,1%
57,4%
18,1% 1,7%
18,3% 2,3%
2,4%
6,3%
1,7%
2,2%
degree
0,5%
1,3%
0,3%
0,7%
0,5%
0,4%
Table 11 - Role Conflict
Role conflict
In Very
high
degree
Are there put contradicting
2,7%
2,6%
demands to you in work?
Do you perform something in 3,4%
your work that is accepted by 3,5%
some, but not by others?
Do you sometimes, have to
3,4%
3,6%
perform something, in
another way than you are
supposed to?
Do you sometimes have to
3,4%
2,8%
perform stuff in your work
that seems unnecessary to
you?
I high
degree
Partly
In poor
degree
6%
8,9%
15,3%
14,4%
26,9%
33,1%
36,5%
41,8%
38,5%
38,8%
27,1%
26,7%
In very
poor
degree
25,9%
16,6%
17,7%
13,6%
10,2%
16,9%
41,7% 32,5%
47,8% 25%
12,3%
6,7%
9,4%
13,5%
36,6% 34,6%
47,1% 30%
16%
6,6%
In Very
high
degree
10,1%
7,2%
I high
degree
Partly
32,6%
32,8%
37,5% 13,3%
39,5% 16,6%
In very
poor
degree
6,5%
3,9%
13%
12%
6,5%
5,8%
7,3%
6,7%
26,3%
36,4%
29,6%
30,9%
26,9%
27,2%
34,1%
34,4%
43,6%
34,4%
40,9%
40,7%
6,2%
4,4%
6,8%
4,4%
8,9%
8,3%
Table 12 - Management Quality
Management quality – how
good is the close
management:
Making sure that the
individual employee, has
great growth opportunities?
At prioritizing the well being
highly?
At planning work?
At solving conflicts?
In poor
degree
10,4%
12,8%
13,5%
12,8%
16%
17,2%
Table 13 - Social Support in Work
Social support in work
Always
Often
Sometimes Rare
How often do you receive
help and support from
18,4% 35,5% 30,3%
10,5% 32,6% 37,5%
Never/Very
rare
11,4% 4,4%
12,1% 7,3%
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coworkers?
How often are your
coworkers willing to listen
to your problems with
work?
How often do you receive
help and support from close
management?
38%
41,9% 14,4%
25,2% 39,5% 23,3%
4,3%
5,4%
18,6% 27,2% 29%
21,5% 28,2% 29,4%
17%
8,2%
16,6% 4,4%
41,2% 32,3% 14,8%
45,2% 30,3% 16,5%
8,4%
6,2%
Feedback
Always Often
How often do you talk with
coworkers, about how well
you perform at work?
How often do you talk with
your superior about how
well you perform at work?
3,2%
2,6%
18,4% 31,1%
19,2% 36,8%
Never/Very
rare
30,1% 17,2%
25,4% 16%
2,9%
5,3%
15,4% 31,7%
21,4% 34,7
30,5%
27%
How often is your close
manager, willing to listen to
your problems with work?
1.4%
6,5%
3,3%
1,8%
Table 14 - Feedback
Sometimes Rare
19,5%
11,5%
Table 15 - Social Community
Social community
Always
Often
Is there a good atmosphere
between you and your
coworkers?
Is there a good cooperation
between colleagues at your
work?
Do you feel like part of the
community at your work?
51,4% 42,1% 5,4%
41,2% 46,3% 9,8%
Never/Very
rare
0,7% 0,5%
1,1% 1,5%
35,5% 46,4% 14,1%
28,8% 45,7% 19,8%
2,6% 1,5%
3,7% 2,7%
52,9%
46%
3,2% 2,8%
4,3% 3,2%
31,8%
33,9
Sometimes Rare
9,3%
12,6%
Table 16 - Insecurity at Work
Insecurity at work – are you worried about:
Becoming unemployed?
Yes
21,5%
24,8%
That because of new technology, you become replaced?
5,6%
15%
Facing difficulties finding a new job in case of unemployment? 27,4%
43,7%
Getting transferred against your will?
15.5%
16.8%
No
78.5%
75.2%
94,4%
85%
72.6%
56,3%
84,5%
83.2%
Table 17 - Job Satisfaction
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Job satisfaction – how
satisfied are you with:
Your future prospects?
The physical-working
environment?
The way, that your abilities are
used?
Your job, everything
considered?
Very
satisfied
16,9%
15.5%
17,3%
13%
21,1%
16,5%
29,4%
22,5%
Satisfied Unsatisfied Very
unsatisfied
65,3%
14,2%
3,6%
59,9% 13,5%
11%
61,8%
16,6%
4,3%
63,3% 16,8%
6,9%
67,2%
9,2%
2,5%
66,3% 12,6%
4,6%
63,5%
5,8%
1,2%
65,9% 9,1%
2,8%
Table 18 - General Self-Evaluated Health
General self evaluated health
Excellent Very
good
19%
41,7%
14,8%
42,3%
How well do you think your
health is?
Good
Less
Good
34,1% 4,6%
35,8% 6,4%
Bad
0,6%
0,8%
Table 19 - Somatic Stress Symptoms
Somatic stress symptoms –
in the last four weeks, how
often have you:
Had stomach problems
and/or pain?
Been dizzy?
Had tensions in different
muscles?
Always Often
Sometimes Rare
Never/Very
rare
0,5%
0,5%
0,2%
0,2%
3,6%
4,9%
15,5%
6,2%
9,4%
3,5%
32,5%
16,4%
53%
68,8%
70,5%
77,3%
24,2%
32,6%
6,8%
2,4%
2,9%
1,7%
15,7%
11,1%
24,2%
22,1%
17%
17,3%
24%
35,1%
Table 20 - Cognitive Stress Symptoms
Cognitive stress symptoms –
in the last four weeks, how
often have you:
Had concentration
difficulties?
Had problems making
decisions?
Had difficulties
remembering?
Had difficulties thinking
clearly
Always Often Sometimes Rare
Never/Very
rare
0,2%
0,4%
0,3%
0,4%
0,8%
0,9%
0,2%
0,4%
44,1%
35,4%
49,2%
52,7%
42,9%
41,5%
53,1%
35,4%
4,3%
3,7%
2,2%
1,4%
2,9%
4,3%
2,9%
3,7%
17,2%
12,6%
16%
6,6%
20,3%
11,9%
11,8%
12,6%
34,2%
47,9%
32,2%
38,9%
31,4%
41,5%
32%
47,9%
52 of 53
The Development in All Dimensions
Figure 26
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