Human Behavior
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KATB303 Human Behaviour- Dr. abdulrahman Bashaikh
Lecture 1
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KATB303 Human Behaviour- Dr. abdulrahman Bashaikh
Introduction
There is no one magical solution to managing human
behavior in organizations. There is no pill you can
take to be the best manager; there is no flowchart or
diagram that will always work.
Sometimes the answer to problems such as how to
turn around a poor performer, how to motivate a
work group, or how to improve communication is
"it depends." It depends on your organization's
vision: its values, purpose, and mission.
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It depends on how well information is communicated to
organizational members. It depends on the structure of
your organization and on your organization's unique
corporate culture. Finally, it depends on the specific
people and work groups with whom you interact, on
your personality, on your management and leadership
styles, and on your technical and managerial
competencies.
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Many people dislike ambiguous answers such as "it
depends." Yet this ambiguity is really good news.
Although the problems and opportunities created by
human behavior are complex and numerous, in response,
you have a wide selection of possible management
reactions and solutions to influencing human behavior.
The complexity of human behavior gives you
management flexibility and as you master management
competencies and gain knowledge and perspective, you
can become an outstanding manager.
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KATB303 Human Behaviour- Dr. abdulrahman Bashaikh
Lecture 2
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Framework for Influencing Human
Behavior
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Phase One: Gather Information
As a manager, you must continually learn about
human behavior.You must gather information
about yourself, others, and your organization.
What styles, traits, needs, values, and
assumptions do you and your fellow workers
have? With what organization culture do your
style and needs, and your employees' styles and
needs, blend best? What motivation theories exist
to help you motivate yourself and others to
improve work performance?
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How can you gather information? Use your senses and
intuition. Observe others' behaviors and listen to their
words and the underlying meanings of those words. At
a gut level, interpret how your observations fit into
theoretical models. Ask questions of yourself and coworkers: What is it that pushes your employees to
behave the way they do? What triggers them? You also
can gather information by reading voraciously.
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Not continuing to gather information about human
behavior can be fatal to a manager. Choosing not to
learn continuously condemns you to a life of "the old
ways." It puts you at a competitive disadvantage, and,
at best, it results in mediocre performance.
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Lecture 3
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Phase Two: Gain a Rational Perspective
Effective managers synthesize the information they
have gathered about human behavior. To do this, they
reduce personal prejudices and personal weaknesses
that may be destructive and may distort reality. Then
they consciously develop a picture or framework,
both broad and detailed, of how human behavior
works in relationship to each employee and to the
entire work group. Gaining perspective is both a
cognitive (intellectual and thinking) process and a
sensory (intuitive and realistic) process.
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To gain a rational perspective, you need to be able
to put the pieces of the human behavior puzzle
together consciously, interpret the interactions of
the theories, create your own personal viewpoint
based on the puzzles' real information, and devise
practical responses.
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Phase Three: Calmly and Truthfully
Interact with Employees
You will not affect human behavior successfully without
providing honest feedback and communication to
employees. Employees are most likely to change and
improve their motivational levels if they feel that you
respect them, that you are being fair and reasonable,
and that you are not threatening them. To achieve
these objectives, you must interact calmly with your
employees.
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If you are not calm, your employees will react to
your emotions rather than to your rational
perspectives. As you interact calmly, follow the
guidelines below.
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Lecture 4
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Guidelines for Calmly and Truthfully
Interacting with Employees
 Show genuine care for the person's well-being by
listening attentively.
 Give honest and frequent feedback; truth may be
painful but it is refreshing and necessary to get results.
 Give feedback that can be processed by as many of the
person's senses as possible. Tell him your thoughts;
write her a memo; show him a graph reflecting his
performance; warmly shake her hand for a job well
done.
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• Be patient.
• Show unrelenting respect. Allow the employee to
show his feelings; don't interrupt, lecture, or
sermonize. Don't change the subject.
• Judge but don't be moralistic. As a manager you must
at some time take a stand, make a decision, and judge
the employee's behavior and performance; however,
moralizing can intimidate and devalue the person.
• Encourage activity; discourage passivity.
• Set limits and boundaries.
• Recognize the context of the behavior.
• Believe in your employee's abilities and tell her so.
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rational,
logical, congruent, and consistent.
Human Behaviour- Dr. abdulrahman Bashaikh
Lecture 5
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Managing Change
Introduction
Change happens whether or not we like it, whether or
not we invite it into our lives, and whether or not
we are ready for it. Change has become the everpresent norm in our society, our organizations, our
work groups, and our personal lives. The goal is to
demystify change and to point out that responses to
change are predictable and that employees can be
managed effectively by planning change efforts.
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A manager needs to understand how to manage change
because change is ever-present. Here are a few examples
of the dimensions that drive change in the workplace.
Demographic and Identity Group Dimensions
Gender
Immigration
Age
Education
Sexual orientation
Family structure
Cultural identities
Disabilities (physical and cognitive)
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Technological Dimensions
Office automation, computer-integrated manufacturing,
and robotics.
Biotechnology and laser technology.
Communication devices (faxes, fiberoptics,
telecommuting, and car phones).
Faster and faster mini- and personal computers
Software application programs.
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Market Dimensions
Mergers and acquisitions.
Globalization and increased competition.
ISO-9000 (international quality system standards).
Bankruptcies.
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Social and Political Dimensions
Regulations and compliance
Presidential elections and leaders
War and starvation
Crime and violence
Family values
Health care
Instability in world regions
Environmental concerns and limited resources
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Corporate/Organizational Dimensions
Vision setting and shifting paradigms
Downsizing, "rightsizing," re-engineering
Productivity
Continuous improvement
Total quality management
The learning organization
Employee dissatisfaction
Reward systems
Customers needs from here
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Change Defined
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We define change as a modification to the status quo,
or the way we do things. Change has the purpose of
achieving specific outcomes or goals. "It is not a
discrete event that occurs by linear progression;
rather it unfolds on many different levels
simultaneously" (Conner, 1992, 10). Change has a
powerful effect depending on what the change is,
why it is happening, how quickly the change is being
implemented, how the change process is being
carried out, who is being asked to change, and how
resilient
the person is to change.
KATB303 Human Behaviour- Dr. abdulrahman Bashaikh
Change affects many different players and is initiated by
different agents, It can affect you personally and be
initiated by an outside force or by yourself. It can affect
an employee who reports to you or a work group you
manage and be initiated by you or your organization. It
can affect your organization and be initiated by its
leader or by an external force. Finally, it can affect
society and be initiated by society.
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Change also can happen at different levels (Hersey and
Blanchard, 1988, 3; Judson, 1991, 23). It is widely
thought that true change happens at the levels of
attitudes, behaviors, and intellect. It has been postulated
that it is not enough for a person's intellect to
understand and accept a change as "right" for the
situation. If the person's feelings and attitudes are
resistant, the person's behaviors will not change or will
reflect the inconsistency and conflict between his
intellect and his feelings.
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Change can be disruptive and very frightening, even if
the change is perceived as an opportunity rather than a
problem. Think of a recent major change that you
experienced at work. How did you feel about the
change? Refer to Exhibit 2-2. Do you see any pattern
between your general feelings about change and your
feelings about your recent major change?
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Exhibit 2-2: How You Experience
Change
How do you generally feel about things when there
is a change in your life? In your work group?
Circle the words that describe how you normally
experience change in your life.
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Rewarded
Isolated
Uncertain
Frightened
Empowered Refreshed
Quiet
Frustrated
Invigorated Energized
Enlightened Puzzled
Happy
Stressed
High
Angry
Depressed
Weighted
down
Sad
Strengthened
Confused
Open to
Disrupted
opportunity
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Low
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How People Are Affected by Change
The disruption of expectations that occurs when a
change is introduced leads people to behave in either
functional (useful and effective) or dysfunctional
(destructive and emotionally unhealthy) ways. The
more functional a person's behaviors are during the
change, the more likely the change will be successful.
As a manager and transition agent, your role is to
recognize and anticipate how people will react to
these disruptions and how resilient they may be, thus
allowing you to assist them through the transition.
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As Exhibit 2-2 illustrates, change can be experienced in many
ways. Let's look more closely at how you can be affected by
change. On a psychological or attitudinal level, you may have
strong emotional reactions, so strong that you may become numb
and unable to respond.Your beliefs, values, assumptions, sense of
security, and history of response to change stemming from
childhood directly influence your feelings and psychological
abilities to respond to change.You may have concerns about your
ability to cope and about your ability to bounce back after the
disorder and disruption. On a physical level, you may feel stressed.
Symptoms include headaches, stomachaches, nausea, fatigue, and
hyperactivity.You may stray from normal eating patterns or have
sleep disturbances. The physical and psychological stress created by
change should not be underestimated.
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On a social level, change often dictates that relationships be
altered. Being forced to leave the work group in which you
have an established role in order to belong to a different
group can be disconcerting. Change causes uncertainty
about your value to the organization and about where you
stand in the organization's power structure.
On a behavioral level, change will require you to act
differently. It may be that you report to someone else and
need to establish a new relationship; you may be given a
new customer base that requires you to travel more, or you
may need to learn a new computer program, just when you
felt you had mastered the old one.
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How People React to Change
Why do some people see change as an opportunity when
others see it as a threat? Why are some people challenged
by a "new way" when others become paralyzed? The
simple answer is that some people are more resilient than
others. They have an ability to be flexible and perceive
disruptions as fun puzzles to solve rather than to avoid.
These resilient people recognize that there is always a
price to pay for change but that not changing (fighting for
the status quo) is more expensive (emotionally, physically,
socially, and behaviorally).
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Daryl Conner, a change theorist, consultant, and author
of Managing at the Speed of Change, argues that
the single most important factor to managing change
successfully is the degree to which people demonstrate
resilience. . . . Resilience is the person's internal
guidance system that people use to reorient themselves
when blown off course by the winds of change. . . .
Resilience is also the capacity to absorb high levels of
change while displaying minimal dysfunctional behavior.
. . . Resilient people accept the discomfort of ambiguity
as a natural and necessary reaction to a transition.
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People who respond positively to change understand
their own natural rhythm to change and allow
themselves to follow it. They are patient with
themselves. They seem to experience phases of
resistance that are of a positive nature. Conner identifies
five positive responses to change: (1) uninformed
optimism, (2) informed pessimism, (3) hopeful realism,
(4) informed optimism, and (5) completion (1992,
136).
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According to Conner (1992, 136–138), the person initially is
optimistic and somewhat uninformed. Conner refers to this as
"naive enthusiasm," or uninformed optimism. Then the person
becomes more pessimistic and recognizes that there are costs to
the change. He is now informed about the negatives of the
change. If the person is not tolerant of pessimism, he will "check
out" and withdraw from the change effort. If he does not check
back in, the results can be destructive. If, however, he does
resolve any problems with his understanding of the costs of the
change, he will move from informed pessimism to hopeful
realism. He now begins to feel that "we can do it." His
confidence level rises and he becomes optimistic again, knowing
what the true costs and benefits are. He can now complete the
change.
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Unfortunately for organizations, all members are not
resilient and do not completely pass through the
positive states described above. Many members have a
negative emotional reaction to change and ride a
psychological and behavioral roller coaster. Conner has
designed a visual representation of this roller coaster
and has assigned eight corresponding negative
emotional phases, as shown in Exhibit 2-3 and
described below.
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Exhibit 2-3: Negative Responses to
Change
Daryl Conner (1993,132–135) proposes an eight-stage
theoretical model that shows the negative responses to
change. (Conner's model is based on Elisabeth KublerRoss's model of responses to death and dying.)
Recognize that not every target goes through these
stages; some targets are more resilient and approach
change from a positive perspective.
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•Stability. The status quo.
• Immobilization. Shock is the first response. Reactions are from
"confusion to complete disorientation."
• Denial. People are unable to absorb the new information related
to the change. They say, "This really isn't happening," and often ask
transition agents to repeat information.
• Anger. People feel hurt and frustrated; their behaviors are
outward irritation and intentional biting comments. People "closest
to the target are blamed, criticized, and treated with hostility."
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• Bargaining. People negotiate to avoid the inevitable change. They
may request deadline extensions or reassignments. The target
recognizes that he can no longer stop the reality of the change.
• Depression. People often feel victimized and feel a sense of
failure. They may be lethargic, unable to complete simple tasks,
and tardy or absent.
• Testing. People begin to test their sense of control by
exploration. They start setting goals and planning within the new
change paradigms.
• Acceptance. People can function and be productive, although
they still may not like the change. Acceptance is when the target
becomes realistic and moves forward.
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People move through these negative phases at different
paces, and these phases sometimes overlap. When tens
or hundreds of employees go through these stages all at
once, as might occur in a reorganization or merger,
managing and leading can become quite complicated.
The hope is that more resilient members will assist the
nonresilient members through the change.
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The resistance that surfaces during these negative stages is exhibited
by comments such as the following:
• "We've always done it this way, and I like it better."
• "Why are we fixing it if it's not broken?"
• "This is impossible!"
• "I never dreamed it would be this difficult."
• "It's hard to teach old dogs new tricks."
• "What makes you think we can do that?"
• "How can I possibly do this with no support?"
• "After a while, he'll understand that that new stuff won't work
around here."
• "If they think I'll continue to work my legs off after this, they'll be
surprised!"
• "Why bother trying anymore; it's not worth it."
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Think of a recent major change in your organization. What
are some examples of members' reactions to change and
their resistant behaviors? How resilient were members?
Did they approach the change positively or negatively? If
they followed the negative responses to change, were
lower productivity, absenteeism, higher accident rates, or
even sabotage involved? These behaviors fall within a
spectrum, presented by Arnold Judson, progressing from
active resistance to passive resistance to indifference to
acceptance, as shown in Exhibit 2-4.
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Why People Resist Change
The primary reason people resist change is that they fear the
loss of control created by the ambiguity ("What will happen
to me and my group?") and disruption of expectations ("But I
assumed it would always be this way").
When people cannot exercise control or make choices from
within, they become resistant to the change that has pulled
the control away from them. Other reasons include the
following:
• Threat to organizationally established power; loss of job status
• Lack of meaning and depth in purpose behind the change
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•Disruption of a personal frame of reference or perception of
reality
•Need for stability and order; loss of job security
•Lack of energy to learn new skills and knowledge
•Not understanding the new role; fear of failure
•Disruption of familiar communication patterns and
relationships
•High level of uncertainty about the future; fear of the
unknown
•Comfort with the status quo; habit; enjoyment of current level
of mastery
•Climate of mistrust
•Loss of control (Joans and Bearley, 1987, 6; Kreitner and
Kinicki, 1992, 733)
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How You Should Handle Resistance
Although this may sound crazy, as a successful transition agent
you should invite resistance that currently exists and explore it
with organization members. Ignoring resistance is like ignoring
an infected cut; it does not go away. It festers and spreads and
eventually will kill you unless you treat it.
Resistance is a symptom of other underlying issues—some that
are under your control, such as environmental and operational
issues, and others that may be beyond your immediate control,
such as the person's personality and resiliency. The more overt
the resistance, the more able you are to respond to it.
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Areas You Can Control
You can control five major areas that will give you leverage to reduce
resistance: (1) understanding, (2) time, (3) involvement, (4)
criticism, and (5) flexibility (Judson, 1991, 84–98).
Understanding The greater understanding that employees have about
the change, the less the resistance. The level of understanding an
employee has relates to the amount of information that she receives.
Being asked to function in an environment where she has many more
questions than answers creates stress. When she does not have enough
information about a change, why should she agree to participate in
the change effort? Questions that a manager needs to answer
thoroughly include the following:
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What specific long-term and short-term objectives are to
be accomplished by the change and why are the
objectives necessary? What are the benefits and who will
benefit?
Why is the change being implemented?
What will be changed?
How will it be changed?
How and when will the changes be introduced?
What is the anticipated situation after the change?
(Judson, 1991, 86)
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When communicating this information, be aware of each
employee's personal attitudes and resilient abilities to
change. The person's social relationships within the
organization, which may be threatened or sustained by the
change, also should be evaluated.
One essential ingredient to imparting change information is
to have a trusting relationship already established with your
employees. A manager needs to have established trust prior
to the change effort in order for him to be believed when
he imparts the information and prepares employees for the
change effort. Exhibit 2-5 lists ten elements of earning and
keeping employees' trust
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Exhibit 2-5: Elements of Trust
How do you develop trust?
 Be inquisitive of what employees have to say; be
nonjudgmental of their comments.
 Use active listening skills.
 Be empathetic, especially for a point of view different
than yours.
 Only make promises you can keep.
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Believe that
personal change on your part and on the part of your
employees is possible and can be a positive experience.
imposing change on others does not work. Lasting
change comes because people are willing and able to
change.
Do not use information obtained confidentially from
employees in a destructive way.
Be nonmanipulative.
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•Actively care about employees as unique people with
unique strengths and opinions. Respect and enjoy who
you and they are.
•Be honest; honesty, although painful at times, is
refreshing.
•Give feedback frequently and welcome feedback from
others.
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Time
"In general, the more time between the first
sense that a change is to occur and its actual
start, the less the resistance. . . . In general, the
less time between the start of the change and
the completion of its initial installation, the less
the resistance. . . . The amount of time between
the initial installation of the change and its
institutionalization into day to day operations
depends on the nature of the change." (Judson,
1991, 91)
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When you give people time to think about a
change before it will occur, you allow them to
get accustomed to it. They can look at the
change from different perspectives and talk
with you and co-workers about their concerns.
Many problems can often be averted or
resolved if there is time to mull over the change
issues. The more you think and talk about the
dimensions of the change, the more the
change becomes familiar and comfortable, and
the more likely you and your employees are to
"own" the change when it arrives.
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Beware, however, the manager who waits and
waits to implement a change after its
announcement. Prolonging the inevitable creates
stress and will recreate resistance. There is an
appropriate range of time, depending on each
situation, that should occur between the
announcement that a change will happen and
before the actual change begins. The less
information that is available in discussing a change,
the less time there should be between its
announcement and its implementation. Time should
be given for employees to "get used to the change"
only if they can be given information to understand
the change.
KATB303 Human Behaviour- Dr. abdulrahman Bashaikh
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Once the change has started, the quicker its
installation the better. "A change carried out in
piecemeal fashion often yields diminished
benefits" (Judson, 1991, 93). When a person
must adjust continuously to losses due to a
fragmented change effort, the person will feel
drained emotionally and the organization will
suffer in terms of productivity. For instance,
during the late 1980s and early 1990s some
companies implemented layoffs in a piecemeal
fashion. Each quarter some employees got laid
off.
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Over a year or two, the surviving employees
experienced continual grief in response to the
losses and the repositioning of job duties. The
level of resistance to performing any activity
increased because employees wondered if
they would be around to see the results. In
such instances, productivity drops and stays
at a low level.
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Involvement The more that employees are
involved in the change process and related
decisions, the less resistance they will have to
the change. When people actively participate in
a change effort, their perception of the change
is different than when a change is thrust on
them without notice or involvement. As people
become involved, they become committed to a
successful outcome and believe that the
organization "must value me, my opinion, my
ability, or else they would not be including me.”
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Criticism The less criticism employees
receive, the less their resistance. Employees
may feel that the change is occurring
because they did something wrong. They
may feel guilty, ashamed, and/or angry. The
best management technique is deliberately to
avoid any suggestion of criticism (Judson,
1991, 97).
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Flexibility The more flexibility that is built
into the change process, the less resistance
there is. Just as employees need to be
involved, they need to feel that their
involvement will have an effect on the
process. Being allowed to have an impact
retains the employee's self-esteem and
reduces fears that the employee may have in
relationship to loss of control.
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What You Can Do If Nothing Seems to
Work
Imagine that you have implemented a change and have
consciously tried to understand and respond to the six
areas of resistance reduction discussed above.Yet you still
have an employee who is resisting. What should you do?
 First, bring the resistance out into the open. Invite and
encourage a dialogue. Let the employee know it is safe to
vent his feelings. Listen to the employee and be sure not
to interrupt. He is "onstage," and it is his turn to let you
know how he feels. Any questions you ask should be to
clarify, not to argue.
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Second, tell the employee you respect his feelings and
that you understand why he may feel the way he does.
Third, further explore his objections to the change. Are
there underlying issues that have nothing to do with the
change? Ask him his opinion as to what he would like to
see happen and why. What options are there? If it was up
to him, how would he handle the situation?
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Fourth, let him know that he does not have to like the
change and that his participation in the change effort is
important for a successful outcome. Tell him he should
take the time he needs to "work this through" and to
"let go of the past." Share with him Conner's models of
positive and negative responses to change. Let him
grieve and heal any losses associated with the change.
Recognize that sometimes people will not change or are
incapable of changing. Some people are not resilient.
When the employee's values and needs do not match the
changed organization's values and needs, a separation
may be in order.
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The Change Process
A variety of models for managing the change process
exist. They all agree that change happens in a series
of states or overlapping phases. "There are obvious
phases which set necessary conditions for moving
into subsequent stages. Omissions of one stage
appears to make it difficult for the change process to
continue forward on an effective basis" (Lawrence,
Barnes, and Lorsch, 1976, 627).
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Unfreezing, Changing, and Refreezing
The first model we will look at is a simplistic three-stage
view proposed in 1947 by Kurt Lewin, a change theory
pioneer. Although it was proposed half a century ago, it
remains the foundation of the majority of contemporary
models. (Although it is described here in relationship to
an organization or a department, it easily can be applied
to personal change.) Lewin said that change occurs in
three phases that must be followed sequentially or else
the change will not last: unfreezing, changing, and
refreezing. Lewin's model is about becoming unstuck
without becoming unglued.
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Unfreezing
During the unfreezing phase, the old situation which was
perceived as normal becomes "unstuck"; employees are
knocked off balance. There must be a change event that
will send the person into the emotional states of change
(negative or positive). This change event may be an
announcement of very low earnings with associated
potential mass layoffs, a resignation by a senior manager, a
lawsuit that indicates that a product is defective, or
rumors and eventual announcement of a merger.
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During unfreezing, people become uncertain and nervous
about "what will happen to me." People experience a loss
of control which can be very frightening. The resilient
person has a more positive response. The less resilient
person responds with negative emotions and behaviors.
During the unfreezing state, it is important to use active
listening skills, to allow employees to vent their feelings,
to impart information, to be honest, and to confront
employees on assumptions they may have.
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Changing
During the changing stage, people learn the details of the change
and the impact the change will have on them. Resistance can
become strong and if not handled well can slow the change
process to a crawl. During this stage, employees need to see the
direction in which the organization is moving—that is, the new
vision. Managers should continue to apply Judson's six areas of
reducing resistance and should be aware of Conner's positive and
negative responses to change.
Activities such as planning, prioritizing, goal setting, reassigning
roles and related tasks, and resolving conflict are common during
the changing phase. Managers should be prepared to set good
examples and to be as resilient as possible. Frequent and open
communication is essential.
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Refreezing
During the refreezing stage, the change takes hold and things are
stabilized. People become comfortable in their new routines and
become accustomed to the new ways of doing things. They reach
acceptance. People do, however, tend to slide back to old ways, so
frequent reminders of expected behaviors may be necessary.
Managers need to be patient. They may think, "Okay. The change
is over." But it is not. The new behaviors need to become
institutionalized over time.
To encourage refreezing, celebrations are useful. They put closure
on the change process and say "now let's go forward and put the
old ways behind us." A celebration may be a big event or a pizza
party with T-shirts that are distributed that have an appropriate
motto such as "I survived the computer conversions" or "What a
long, KATB303
strange
trip it's been!”
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Force-Field Analysis
Lewin was a prolific philosopher and social
psychologist, His force-field analysis model can be
applied to change experienced by an individual,
department, or entire organization; essential
elements of this model are presented in Exhibit 2-6.
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Exhibit 2-6: Force-Field Analysis
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Two forces influence whether a change will
happen: driving forces and restraining
forces. These forces are shown as the
arrows in Exhibit 2-6. The arrows or forces
have different strengths, as shown by the
length of the arrows. Driving and resisting
forces keep the situation in a certain
position. To change the position of the
situation, either the driving forces or the
resisting forces need to be modified.
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For instance, imagine that when employees talk with
customers on the phone, you want them to say the
customer's first name at least once during the
conversation. Suppose that the employees are not
vising customers' names at all. How do you
encourage employees to change? As shown in
Exhibit 2-6, the driving forces for saying the
customer's names are higher sales, greater
customer trust, and greater customer commitment.
The restraining forces, or forces against the change,
are employees do not have an updated listing, they
share customers so are not as familiar with them,
and they are unmotivated because they are paid not
by the number of sales made but by the hour.
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Lewin's rule is that you should decrease the strength
of the arrows of the restraining forces rather than
increase the driving forces. In response to an
increase in driving forces, the negative forces will
gather more strength and the conflict will escalate.
Now follow Lewin's rule in our example. The best
managerial action is to reduce the restraining forces.
In other words, you should create a system that
updates the customer's name list frequently, assign
each employee a grouping of customers so the
employees will become familiar with the customer's
names, and institute a sales incentive program in
addition to the hourly rate.
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Which of these restraining forces should be
addressed first? It depends on the amount of control
you have over, and accessibility you have to, the
restraining force. (You have more control over
reassignment than you do over pay because a
change in pay may require senior management
approval.) It also depends on which of the restraining
forces may already be in an unfrozen state. Finally, it
depends on which restraining force may have an
effect on the other restraining forces. It is possible
that if you reassign customers, then each employee
will set up her own data listing. Thus, decreasing one
restraining force also may decrease the other
restraining force.
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Systematic Approach to Change
Arnold Judson (1991, 165–204) has proposed a
flexible model and guide consisting of five phases
described below.
 Phase 1. Analyze and plan the change. Use a group
approach to the plan and ask many questions.
Devise a balance sheet that analyzes the benefits
and disadvantages of the planned change.
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Phase 2. Communicate about the change. Discuss the actual
change and its implications. Having a dialogue, rather
than a one-way announcement, is essential. Be prepared
to repeat your comments and to remind employees of
what will happen. Plan on needing "considerable" time
to carry this out.
Phase 3. Gain acceptances of the required changes in
behavior. Agreement needs to be reached as to what
employees will do and will not do. Specific behaviors are
discussed along with performance measures. Consensus
is the goal.
(Phases 1-3 are part of Lewin's unfreezing. Phase 4
enters
Lewin's
changing
stage.)
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Phase 4. Make the initial transition. This is when the change
actually starts. Brief employees on what will actually take
place and when; then begin implementation. Be ready to
offer "more careful and thorough supervision" and be
prepared for "unforeseen problems." It is essential to keep
communication lines open and to discuss progress
frequently.
Phase 5. Consolidation and follow up. Implement systematic
and monitoring procedures so that feedback can be
obtained quickly and accurately. Share the feedback with all
employees. Resolve outstanding problems and "remain
personally flexible about changing the methods used for
realizing
the
change."
(Judson,
1991,
182)
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The Elephant Can Dance
James Belasco (1990, 20–28), in his book Teaching the
Elephant to Dance, puts forth his model, which he bases
on Lewin's and Edgar Schein's work. (Edgar Schein is a
renowned organizational and management development
expert and author.) Belasco's model follows four steps:
 Build a sense of urgency. Make the reason for change
urgent enough so people will respond. Potent pain and
anxiety are necessary to propel the person toward
change. The example Belasco gives is that we often put
off going to the dentist until our tooth hurts so much
that we cannot stand it any longer.
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Create a clear tomorrow . . . a promised land. Once you have
established the need to change by creating a sense of
urgency, you need to give people a clear and easy-tocomprehend "promised land." This well-defined and
communicated goal or vision should pull people toward it.
Develop a migration path. Show people how to get to the
promised land. Use behavioral modeling; teach them new
behaviors and approaches to problem solving. Then give
them permission to change and empower them to make
decisions on their own.
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Reinforce the new behavior. The old adage "practice makes
perfect" applies here. Encourage employees to practice
as much as possible and then positively reinforce them
when they implement the change correctly.
Belasco contends that there is no destination for
change—that change is a continuous and never-ending
process. The old saying that "the journey is the goal, not
the destination," is fitting here.
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Keys for Successful Change
Theories and models give a necessary perspective on
management. But from a practical standpoint, how can we
apply these concepts? When used at the right time, a
number of ingredients will result in a better change
process. These twelve ingredients, or keys, are listed here
in no special order. As you review the list, consider the
following questions: What was the last change I
experienced at work that would have benefited from
following one or some of these keys? What change do I
want to implement in my work group that will benefit
from using one or some of these keys?
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Recognize that you cannot change someone; he has to
want to change. What you can do is light the fire under
him—help unfreeze him.
Recognize that change is an unfolding process that can
bring discomfort, ambiguity, and disorientation, in
addition to more positive emotional reactions.
To help employees welcome change before it happens,
ask them this question at the end of every day: What
exactly have you changed today and how have you
changed it?
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Establish trust long before any change effort is to be
implemented.
Ask yourself:
What would I feel and think if I was in her place?
Would my status be affected by the change?
How would my priorities be affected?
How would my relationships be affected?
What would the benefits be for me to change? Would
the losses outweigh the benefits?
Analyze and understand how and why your organization
has planned and implemented change in the past. What
worked and what did not? What are potential obstacles of
this
new
change?
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Behaviour- Dr. abdulrahman Bashaikh
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Determine the learning and communication styles of the
targets of the change.
Ask the targets of the change:
What are all the reasons why we cannot or should not
do this change?
What are the reasons why we can or should do this
change?
Repeat the vision and related actions. Boldly
communicate the new direction and vision through
tangible symbols. Use logos, slogans, banners,
newsletters, E-mail, memos, meetings, T-shirts,
brochures, payroll stuffers, and so on.
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Communicate in smaller groups rather than larger
groups. This encourages greater and more honest
participation and dialogue.
Create a transition team to oversee the change.
Ask questions to clarify and expand upon thoughts and
feelings. Do not assume what employees are feeling and
thinking. Cultivate humor throughout the process.
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The Clock's Inner Workings
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What makes us tick? What makes us get up every morning, sometimes without the help of our trusty alarm,
shower, get dressed, and eat breakfast in the car as we drive to work? What drives us to perform the way we do?
What are our inner workings—those nebulous, sometimes conscious, sometimes unconscious "things" that
motivate us to behave the way we do?
The topic of motivation is complex. Those of us who like simple answers wrapped neatly in a box will be
disappointed. We behave the way we do—our employees and bosses behave the way they do—because of our
personalities, our value systems, our unique past experiences, the jobs we have, the people with whom we work,
and the organizations in which we work.
A variety of theorists have boldly taken stands about what makes us tick. These theorists sometimes sit on opposite
poles of the philosophical world. The behaviorists believe that looking at a person's feelings and emotions to
develop ways to motivate people is useless. Other theorists dislike the idea of focusing on stimuli and responses to
motivate people because of the perceived superficial and manipulative nature of that focus. Still other theorists
believe we need to focus on what motivates us rather than on how we are motivated. Trying to determine whose
theory is right or best is a futile venture because all of the theories presented in this chapter may be useful under
certain circumstances.
As a manager, you should learn about motivation and human behavior theories and then, through trial and error,
apply these concepts to managing your work group. Although you are not a psychologist, you are a manager who
knows that if you can help improve the motivation of your employees, your employees' productivity is sure to
increase.
How can you improve someone else's motivation? Some experts contend that you can never motivate another
person—motivation comes from within and no external force or person can make an employee behave in a
certain way. Other experts believe that you can help people improve their motivation levels, and it is these
theorists to whom we now turn.
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Theories of Motivation
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Theories of Motivation
The theories of motivation described in this chapter have their limits. Many were developed with the all-American, white, male adult
in mind. Much of the supporting research was performed before the late 1970s and before women and minorities had reached a level
of important involvement in the workforce. Until recently, managing diversity was not considered important. In fact, employers
once were taught to encourage employees to blend in or assimilate rather than to be valued for their uniqueness. But classical
theories do have value and sometimes can be applied cross-culturally, especially when they are modified to meet contemporary
needs. Research to support the contemporary and cross-cultural applications of these theories is limited and probably will become an
area of management research in the future. The focus here is to explain the basics of the classical theories and to discuss their current
implications for management action.
What Is This "Thing" Called Motivation?
According to James Stoner and Edward Freeman, "Motivation is factors that cause, channel, and sustain an individual's behavior"
(1989, 425). Motivation can be stimulated extrinsically—that is, it can stem from outside the person. Examples include supervisory
feedback that may improve performance, a poorly maintained work area that may reduce productivity, and fringe benefits that may
encourage employees not to leave a job. Motivation also can be stimulated intrinsically—that is, it can stem from inside the person.
Examples include the desire to be recognized for a project well done, which might make a person speak loudly at a meeting, and the
desire to belong to a group and be accepted by its members, which might make a person participate in an activity she might not
ordinarily perform.
Motivation theories often are broken down into three categories:
Content theories.What needs motivate a person?
Process theories. How does motivation occur and what are the characteristics of what motivates people?
Behaviorism. How are behaviors learned and reinforced?
Content and process theories often complement one another. Behaviorism takes a distinctly different approach and parts may or may
not contradict content and process theories.
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Content Theories
Content theories, also called need theories, focus on what motivates people. Content theories answer the questions: What specific kinds of
needs do people have? What propels people to act as they do? Content theorists believe that if you can learn and understand the factors
that motivate people to behave in specific ways, you can predict how they will behave and motivate people by changing the factors.
The content theorists discussed in this chapter make a number of assumptions about human nature:
1. People have inner needs that they desire to meet or reduce. People act to satisfy or reduce these needs. Take as an example
providing caring and respectful customer service. One employee might act pleasantly because he knows if the customer buys the product
he will receive a bonus. Another employee might act pleasantly because he desires to be liked. Both employees behave as the company
wants, but both employees are acting to fulfill very different needs—financial (or security) needs versus acceptance (or social) needs.
2. Since every person is different, each person's needs are different. The difficult role of a manager is to figure out each employee's
unique needs and value system and then to help the employee to satisfy those needs while maintaining his own values. This process
becomes complicated because the manager also has unique needs and values; it can be difficult for a manager to understand and
empathize with an employee who has needs and values that are opposite from her own.
3. How each person translates his own needs into actions differs from person to person. One employee who has a high need for affiliation
or belonging might meet the need by joining a number of task forces and committees; another person with the same need might strive to
work closely with employees in her department and choose specifically not to reach outside of her work group. Both employees have the
same need to belong, but each fulfills it differently.
4. Each person may behave inconsistently to fulfill the same need. A person may choose to be on time to work because of a need for job
security or the person may fulfill the need for job security by calling in late so that he can interview at another company which he perceives
as having better job security.
5. People react differently, under varying circumstances, when their needs are not met. Some people may become irrational, feel
frustrated, be resigned to not getting what they want, or act more determined to fulfill their needs by figuring out a different way to satisfy
their needs.
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
 Abraham Maslow, a psychologist, is probably the most often
taught motivation theorist. Maslow's motivation theories were
first published in 1943 and updated extensively by him in 1954
and 1970. They have been popular because of the ability to
simplify, in graphic form, a basic part of his theories. Maslow
believed that people are motivated by a variety of five major
motives or needs, which have different degrees of importance to
each of us and which are depicted in a hierarchy. At the bottom of
the hierarchy is physiological needs, then safety and security
needs, social and belonging needs, egoistic and esteem needs, and,
finally, self-actualization needs. Exhibit 3-1 shows a pictorial
representation of this hierarchy. Each motivator usually needs to
be satisfied before a higher need surfaces for fulfillment, although
most practitioners agree that these needs overlap.
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96
Self-actualization =
Realize fullest potential, be your best, be creative, and have inner peace and
harmony.
Egoistic and esteem =
Strive for recognition, respect, status, self-confidence, independence,
achievement, power, and competence.
Social and belonging =
Strive for group membership, friendship, love, and affection.
Safety and security =
Strive for protection from harm (emotional or physical), job security, and
insurance benefits.
Physiological =
Strive for food, exercise, shelter, and warmth.
KATB303 Human Behaviour- Dr. abdulrahman Bashaikh
Maslow believed that once a need is satisfied it no longer motivates you. For instance, you might be motivated
by a need for safety and request an employment contract. After your need is satisfied (you sign the contract), you
then may focus on your need to belong to your new work group.
Maslow also believed that sometimes certain needs dominate a person's existence. That person may tend to
become disruptive to ensure that her needs are met. For instance, if someone has a large need for belonging,
she may dominate conversations to the point of talking too much and getting no work accomplished. Or an
employee may have carpal tunnel syndrome (an ailment of the wrist due to injury caused by repetitive motion).
This employee may fixate on safety needs rather than on belonging needs. Instead of being part of a team, her
focus may be on her physical activities and her safety.
Employers in the United States usually motivate employees at the three bottom levels of Maslow's hierarchy.
For instance, employers offer benefit perks, vacations, retirement, salaries, sports leagues, Christmas parties,
and pleasant working environments, all of which meet physiological, safety, and social needs. Employers often
disregard the two top levels of egoistic and self-actualization needs, which many employees desire. Traditional
incentives do not satisfy these higher-level needs. Managers should turn their attention to the egoistic needs:
assigning challenging projects, assigning more authority for decision making, providing feedback, recognizing
performance with meaningful awards, and promoting employees.
Self-actualization needs for traditional Americans are more difficult to meet since they are different for each
person. Managers should know what each employee perceives as his ultimate personal and professional
objectives and how he wants to fulfill these objectives. Managers need to have a "heart-to-heart" dialogue with
each employee to determine self-actualization needs and motivators that may satisfy these needs.
In 1983, Edwin Nevis conducted motivation research of cultures other than the traditional American culture. His
research indicates that although many of the same needs exist in other cultures, the hierarchy order and strength
of each need (as shown by the width of each band in the hierarchy) is different. For instance, in China, the base
of the triangle hierarchy is "the need to belong" and is a thicker band than the hierarchy used to describe an
American's needs. The second band or level from the bottom in the hierarchy for Chinese people is
"physiological needs," the third is "safety needs," and the last is the "need for self-actualization in the service of
society" (rather than the individual seeking self-actualization for herself as is true for Americans) (Kreitner and
Kinicki, 1992, 170).
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Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Model
 aslow's and McClelland/Atkinson's models indicate that it is appropriate to fit
the job to the person's needs. Frederick Herzberg's theory supports this
philosophy. In the 1950s, Herzberg developed the motivator-hygiene model
which focused on developing jobs that are intrinsically satisfying by enriching
the jobs, adding and sharing duties, and rotating responsibilities. He based his
theories on extensive research he performed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, with
200 engineers and accountants. These individuals were asked what made them
happy or unhappy on the job.
 Herzberg found that there are two distinct types of factors that either motivate
people or keep people from becoming dissatisfied. He called the factors that
prevent job dissatisfaction "hygiene or maintenance factors." Factors that
motivate people, or give job satisfaction, he called "motivators."
 In essence, job satisfaction comes from actual achievement of a task and the
work itself, whereas job dissatisfaction arises from the job surroundings of the
work environment. Herzberg theorized that it is not enough simply to remove
the causes of dissatisfaction by improving the working environment; managers
also need to offer employees the opportunity for achievement.
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To keep people from becoming dissatisfied—to prevent the loss of
performance—managers need to maintain the following hygiene-maintenance
factors:
• Policies and procedures
• Pay
• Working conditions
• Environment
• Social relationships
• Status
• Security
Many managers contend that pay and benefits motivate people. Herzberg
contends that pay and benefits only keep people from becoming unhappy
because pay and benefits are extrinsic factors. If these factors are present in
adequate amounts, adding to them does not result in higher satisfaction or
motivation.
To motivate people, rather than to prevent them from becoming unhappy,
managers need to focus on the job content, or intrinsically motivating factors,
rather than on external or hygiene factors. These motivators are:
• The job tasks
• Achievement
• Recognition
• Stimulating work
• Personal and career growth
• Increased responsibility
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Organizations that rely solely on economic rewards put themselves in a no-win situation. Pay increases only hold
off dissatisfaction. The job itself and the employee's attitude toward the job are the true components of
motivation. Factors that are intrinsically rewarding motivate employees. One way for managers to focus on
motivators is to enrich the jobs—that is, to have employees take on responsibilities that normally are their
supervisor's duties. Examples include adding interviewing duties to a personnel assistant's job, having a staff
accountant prepare a presentation to senior management, or asking a machine operator to supervise two other
junior machine operators.
When you enrich an employee's job, be sure to increase the employee's accountability for her own work, grant
greater job freedom, provide regular feedback on progress, and introduce new and more difficult tasks that
enable the employee to become an expert. While you focus on these motivators, diligently ensure the
continuation of appropriate hygiene factors such as pay increases, improved benefits, and fair and reasonable
personnel policy administration.
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McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y
 Douglas McGregor proposed that managers and organizations view the
world based on certain assumptions, specifically about what drives
employees. These assumptions fall within a spectrum shown in Exhibit
3-2.
 Theory X managers have an overall pessimistic view of people and
believe that employees need to be directed, threatened, and controlled.
These assumptions eventually create hostility on the part of employees.
Theory Y managers, on the other hand, are optimistic about people and
believe people are active and welcome change. Theory Y managers are
nurturing and trust employees to do the right things. Employees who
work for Theory Y managers find meaning in their work lives and are
more committed to the organization. McGregor suggests that managers
should be Theory Y managers and should tap into people's potential with
participative management and with shared responsibility in problem
solving and decision making.
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Theory X
Theory Y
People have an inherent dislike of work; they work only to survive.
People derive satisfaction from and are motivated to work.
People are motivated by safety concerns, money, and fringe benefits.
People are creative and energetic if properly motivated.
People reject responsibility.
People are motivated by all of Maslow's hierarchy—especially social,
esteem, and self-actualization needs.
People are motivated by punishment and threats.
People welcome change and are willing to take risks.
People are basically immature, irresponsible, and untrustworthy.
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projects
 Dietry behavior
 Effect of diet on behavior
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