ENDURING FREEDOM:
US POLITICAL WARFARE
IN THE COLD WAR
AND THE “WAR ON TERROR”
Professor Scott Lucas
American and Canadian Studies
PART 1:
WHEN CULTURE
AND FOREIGN POLICY
COLLIDE
“As Karen Hughes, longtime presidential
adviser and new public diplomacy guru at the
State Department, prepares to leave this
weekend on a ‘listening tour’ of the Middle East,
a congressionally mandated advisory panel to
the department warned that America’s image
and reputation abroad could hardly be worse.”
“The panel's report, which has been seen by senior officials but not
yet officially released, said a fact-finding mission to the Middle East
last year found that ‘there is deep and abiding anger toward U.S.
policies and actions’. The Advisory Committee on Cultural
Diplomacy cited polling that found that large majorities in Egypt,
Morocco and Saudi Arabia "view George W. Bush as a greater
threat to the world order than Osama bin Laden.” (Washington Post,
24 September 2005)
QUESTION:
WHY IS THERE A CONTINUING TENSION BETWEEN
THE PROJECTION OF “AMERICA” AND ITS
RECEPTION BY PEOPLES OF OTHER COUNTRIES?
America's image problem is not only regional. It is global.
(Council on Foreign Relations, July 2002)
A fundamental problem of credibility….The United States
today is without a working channel of communication to
the world of Muslims and of Islam (Defense Science
Board, December 2004)
• “I'm amazed that there is such misunderstanding
of what our country is about that people would
hate us. I, like most Americans, I just can't believe
it, because I know how good we are.”
• George Bush, 14 October 2001
PART 2:
U.S. STRATEGY,
THEN AND NOW:
THE ENEMY AND
THE CONCEPT OF
“POLITICAL WARFARE”
•
“Political warfare is the employment of all the means at a
nation's command, short of war, to achieve its national
objectives.”
“Understanding the concept of political
warfare, we should also recognize that
there are two major types of political
warfare--one overt and the other
covert…. Having assumed greater
international responsibilities than ever before
in our history and having been engaged by
the full might of the Kremlin's political
warfare, we cannot afford to leave unmobilized
our resources for covert political warfare.
(George Kennan, Director of Policy Planning, State Department,
May 1948)
A. POLITICAL WARFARE TRIES TO UNIFY
METHODS
•
1. “Soft” and “Hard” Power
•
2. Overt and Covert Operations
B. POLITICAL WARFARE TRIES TO UNIFY
SPHERES OF ACTIVITY: “STATE” AND
“PRIVATE”
“What is proposed here is an operation in the
traditional American form: organized public
support of resistance to tyranny in foreign
countries. Throughout our history, private
American citizens have banded together to champion the cause of
freedom for people suffering under oppression.” (George Kennan,
”The Inauguration of Organized Political Warfare”, May 1948)
D. POLITICAL WARFARE IS
A TOTAL
CAMPAIGN
1. Military
2. Economic
3. Cultural/Ideological
4. Media and Propaganda
(Official and “Unofficial”)
“We must pool our efforts with those of
the other free peoples in a sustained,
intensified program to promote the cause
of freedom against the propaganda of
slavery. We must make ourselves heard
around the world in a great campaign of
truth.”
President Harry Truman, 1950
PART IV
THE TENSIONS
A. Militarisation (from 1950)
“No automatic means of ‘stopping communism’ on our part, particular
where it is primarily a matter of men’s minds. Military occupation or direct
military action not always fool-proof remedy, and not even seriously
advocated for most of Asia --- even by strongest critics of our policy.”
(George Kennan to Secretary of State Dean Acheson, 6 February 1950)
“The ability to perform these tasks (of foreign policy) requires a build-up
of military strength by the United States and its allies to a point at which
the combined strength will be superior for at least these tasks, both
initially and throughout a war, to the forces that can be brought to bear by
the Soviet Union and its satellites.” (NSC 68, April 1950)
B. The Limits of Soft Power
HUNGARY 1956
CHINA
CUBA
C. The Breakdown of the Cold War Framework
VIETNAM
IRAN
LEBANON
D. The Conflict Between Power and Liberation
(“Freedom”)
“We have about 50% of the world's wealth but only 6.3% of its
population. This disparity is particularly great as between
ourselves and the peoples of Asia. In this situation, we cannot
fail to be the object of envy and resentment. Our real task in the
coming period is to devise a pattern of relationships which will
permit us to maintain this position of disparity without positive
detriment to our national security. To do so, we will have to
dispense with all sentimentality and day-dreaming; and our
attention will have to be concentrated everywhere on our
immediate national objectives. (George Kennan, February 1948)
“To attempt evasion of an obvious ideological issue is (1)
objectively, to yield much of the field of conflict to our
adversaries and (2) subjectively, to subvert our own ideological
integrity --- that is, deny subconsciously heritage and
philosophic concepts which are inner reasons that
we are, for all our shortcomings, not only great but good, and
therefore a dynamic force in the mind of the world. (Policy
Planning Staff, May 1949)
PART V
THE POST-COLD WAR REVIVAL:
POLITICAL WARFARE
OR MUCH MORE?
A. The Invocation of Freedom
“Freedom is the non-negotiable demand of human
dignity; the birthright of every person in every civilization.
Throughout history, freedom has been threatened by war
and terror; it has been challenged by the clashing wills of
powerful states and the evil designs of tyrants; and it has
been tested by widespread poverty and disease. Today,
humanity holds in its hands the opportunity to further
freedom's triumph over all these foes. The United States
welcomes our responsibility to lead in this great mission.”
(National Security Strategy 2002)
B. Tragedy and Possibility: 11 September 2001
“How do we capitalize on these
opportunities?” (National Security
Advisor Condoleezza Rice to
National Security Council staff)
“[I want] best info fast. Judge whether good enough hit S.H. [Saddam
Hussein] at same time. Not only UBL [Osama bin Laden]. Go massive.
Sweep it all up. Things related and not.”
(Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld
to staff, 12 September 2001)
C. Public Diplomacy and Political Warfare
“The much discussed potential of public diplomacy to address
anti-American sentiment is vitally important at a time when
terrorism is such a worldwide threat and uncertainty is
pervasive. In the struggle of ideas, public diplomacy is a
critical component, a rapid and flexible capability for U.S.
diplomacy abroad directed at improving understanding of and
support for U.S. policy, encouraging and empowering
moderates, and discrediting intolerance.” (State Department
Strategic Goal 11: Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs, 2004)
This is definitely the most elegant brand I--I've ever
had to work with, and I have a lot of facets of the
brand. First it's President Bush and Secretary Powell
embodying the brand. That's a pretty inspiring place
to start.
Advertising executive Charlotte Beers, on being appointed as
Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, 7 November 2001
As Shahed Amanullah, an engineer who
lives in San Francisco, California, puts it, "
American values are, by and large, very
consistent with Islamic values, with a focus
on family, faith, hard work, and an
obligation to better self and society.“
PART 6
THE TENSIONS, CHAPTER TWO
“They could have the prophet Muhammad
doing public relations and it wouldn't help.”
(Osama Siblani, publisher of Arab-American
News)
A.
Militarisation and “Hard Power”
“As much as I would love
the Iraqis to love me,
and my doctrine tells me
that I want to win the
hearts and minds, I
know I’m not going to do
that.” (Lieutenant
General Thomas Metz)
B. The Conflict of Power and Liberation (“Freedom”)
“Our first objective is to prevent the re-emergence of a
new rival. This is a dominant consideration underlying
the new regional defense strategy and requires that
we endeavor to prevent any hostile power from
dominating a region whose resources would, under
consolidated control, be sufficient to generate global
power. These regions include Western
Europe, East Asia, the territory of the
former Soviet Union, and Southwest
Asia.” (Assistant Secretary of Defense
Paul Wolfowitz, 1992 Defense
Planning Guidance)
The Bush Administration: Iraq as Example
“Powell began by discussing the
new strategy for ‘targeted sanctions’.
But after a moment Rumsfeld
interrupted. ‘Sanctions are fine,’ he
said. ‘But what we really want to think
about is going after Saddam. Imagine
what the region would look like without
Saddam and with a regime that's
aligned with U.S. interests. It would
demonstrate what U.S. policy is all
about.’” (Secretary of Treasury Paul
O’Neill referring to 1 February 2001
National Security Council meeting)
“The great strength of this nation must be used to
promote a balance of power that favors freedom.”
(National Security Strategy 2002)
“The Iraqis had
flowers in their
minds.” (Assistant
Secretary of Defense
Douglas Feith)
“We’re trying to
save their lives
but they’re not
helping us by
getting in our
way.” (US military
officer)
“Freedom’s untidy.” (Donald Rumsfeld, April 2001)
PLAYING FOOTBALL AND GROWING BEARDS IN
FALLUJAH
In early 2004, US Marines were sent into the Fallujah area to
replace Army units which had been, in the words of Marine
spokesmen, “too heavy-handed” in their treatment of the Iraqi
population. To win local favour, the Marines grew beards and set
up football games.
At the start of April, the Marines shaved off their beards and all
football games.
In the next two weeks, more than 700 Iraqis died in Fallujah.
C. The Limits of “Soft Power”
“A group of Turkish women's rights activists confronted
Undersecretary of State Karen Hughes on Wednesday with
emotional and heated complaints about the U.S.-led invasion of
Iraq, turning a session designed to highlight the empowering of
women into a raw display of the anger at U.S. policy in the
region.
"This war is really, really bringing your positive efforts to the
level of zero," said Hidayet Sefkatli Tuksal, an activist with the
Capital City Women's Forum. She said it was difficult to talk
about cooperation between women in the United States and
Turkey as long as Iraq was under occupation. (Washington
Post, 29 September 2005)