Omejitve proste trgovine
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Premik trgovinske politike v smeri
odpravljanja omejitev “znotraj meja”
t.i. “barriers within the border”
Logična smer razvoja zaradi primarnega
uspeha GATT/WTO sporazumov
Zmanjševanje carinskih stopenj in količinskih
omejitev
GATT temeljna načela
 Člen I.
 General Most-Favoured-Nation Treatment
 1. With respect to customs duties and charges of any kind
imposed on or in connection with importation or exportation or
imposed on the international transfer of payments for imports
or exports, and with respect to the method of levying such
duties and charges, and with respect to all rules and
formalities in connection with importation and exportation, and
with respect to all matters referred to in paragraphs 2 and 4 of
Article III, any advantage, favour, privilege or immunity
granted by any contracting party to any product originating in
or destined for any other country shall be accorded
immediately and unconditionally to the like product originating
in or destined for the territories of all other contracting parties.
GATT temeljna načela
 Člen III.(National Treatment)
 1. The contracting parties recognize that internal taxes and other
internal charges, and laws, regulations and requirements affecting
the internal sale, offering for sale, purchase, transportation,
distribution or use of products, and internal quantitative regulations
requiring the mixture, processing or use of products in specified
amounts or proportions, should not be applied to imported or
domestic products so as to afford protection to domestic production.
 2. The products of the territory of any contracting party imported into
the territory of any other contracting party shall not be subject,
directly or indirectly, to internal taxes or other internal charges of any
kind in excess of those applied, directly or indirectly, to like domestic
products. Moreover, no contracting party shall otherwise apply
internal taxes or other internal charges to imported or domestic
products in a manner contrary to the principles set forth in paragraph
1.
GATT temeljna načela
 Člen XI
 General Elimination of Quantitative
Restrictions
 1. No prohibitions or restrictions other than duties,
taxes or other charges, whether made effective
through quotas, import or export licences or other
measures, shall be instituted or maintained by any
contracting party on the importation of any product
of the territory of any other contracting party or on
the exportation or sale for export of any product
destined for the territory of any other contracting
party.
GATT temeljna načela
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Člen XX. General Exceptions
Subject to the requirement that such measures are not applied in a manner which would
constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries where the
same conditions prevail, or a disguised restriction on international trade, nothing in this
Agreement shall be construed to prevent the adoption or enforcement by any contracting
party of measures:
(a) necessary to protect public morals;
(b) necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health;
(c) relating to the importation or exportation of gold or silver;
(d) necessary to secure compliance with laws or regulations which are not
inconsistent with the provisions of this Agreement, including those relating to customs
enforcement, the enforcement of monopolies operated under paragraph 4 of Article II and
Article XVII, the protection of patents, trade marks and copyrights, and the prevention of
deceptive practices;
(e) relating to the products of prison labour;
(f) imposed for the protection of national treasures of artistic, historic or
archaeological value;
(g) relating to the conservation of exhaustible natural resources if such measures are
made effective in conjunction with restrictions on domestic production or consumption;
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Reakcije držav podpisnic:
Novi načini omejevanja trgovine
Skupni imenovalec novih “ukrepov” je visoka
stopnja subtilnosti in zakrivanja
Gre za ukrepe, ki omejujejo prosto trgovino s
sklicevanjem na “klasične” standarde, ki naj bi
bili povsem v domeni nacionalnih držav kot
suverenih subjektov mednarodnega javnega
prava
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Standardi
Zdravje državljanov
Varnost državljanov
Varstvo okolja
Razlikovanje v ureditvah od države do
države
Razlika med “standardi” predstavlja
možnost za protekcionistično politiko
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Tudi če ni namena protekcionizma
Težave pri načrtovanju koherentne trgovinske
politike
Klasično vprašanje –
Razmejitev med pravico države do suverenega
urejanja področij,ki se dotikajo varnosti in
zdravja državljanov in dolžnostjo neomejevanja
(razen utemeljenega) trgovine do mednarodne
skupnosti
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
“The decades long process of lowering
trade barriers resembles the draining of a
lake that reveals mountain peaks formerly
concealed or (more pessimistically) the
peeling of an onion that reveals
innumerable layers of barriers.” – Miles
Kahler, Trade and Domestic Differences,
1996
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
70, 80, 90-a leta 20. stoletja
Rast količine in dvig intenzivnosti standardov, ki
naj ščitijo človekovo okolje, varnost in zdravje
Odsev moderne socialne države
Zdravje, varnost, čisto okolje postajajo
ekonomske dobrine
Višji standard – drugačne dobrine prevladujejo
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Povpraševanje po “novih” ekonomskih
dobrinah pripelje do novih regulatornih
ukrepov (politike na področjih varnosti,
okolja…)
Ti ukrepi lahko predstavljajo ovire za
mednarodno trgovino
Gre za področja, ki naj bi klasično ne sodili
v domeno mednarodnih trgovinskih
sporazumov
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Gre za področja pod suvereno oblastjo
držav – popolnoma notranja razmerja!!
Tipičen primer
“eko-protekcionizem” vs. Liberalizacija
Kje so temeljne težave?
Države izvoznice
Države uvoznice
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Domači izdelovalci –
Težave z uvoženimi izdelki, ki so bili izdelani na
podlagi zelo nizkih standardov v državi izvora
Takšni izdelki imajo določeno vrsto subvencije
(nižji stroški zaradi nižjih standardov)
Zahtevajo t.i. level playing field
Kaj pa komparativne prednosti?
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Težave predvsem v odnosu
Države v razvoju
Želijo uporabljati svoje (ponavadi) nižje okoljske in
zdravstvene standarde kot komparativno prednost
Razvite države
Zaradi višjih domačih standardov so domači izdelki
dražji  zato naj bi bile komparativne prednosti DVR
v bistvu protekcionistični ali diskriminatorni ukrepi
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
 Tipična primera
 Delaney Clause v ZDA
 “zero-tolerance” klavzula, kar zadeva karcinogene elemente
 Prepoved tudi, kar zadeva DDT
 Pesticid, ki je dovoljen v skladu s Codex Alimentarius
• CA  ustvarjen 1963 (WHO, FAO)  z namenom zagotoviti varovanje
pravic potrošnikov na področju prehrane in zagotoviti spoštovanje
poštenih poslovnih običajev pri trgovini s hrano.
 Preseganje standardov iz CA pomeni prima facie presumpcijo
ukrepov, ki predstavljajo OMEJITEV proste trgovine
 ZDA bo prisiljena dovoliti prihod izdelkov, ki so “kontaminirani”.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
 Britanske klobase (označevanje)
Britanski izvoznik prodaja klobase v Nemčiji
Predpis od njega zahteva, da svoje izdelke označuje in
trži pod terminom
 “pork-filled offal tubes” in ne
 “sausages”
 Zahteva nedvomno izraža sestavo
prehrambenega artikla, ima pa lahko tudi
negativne učinke kar zadeva marketing
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Regulatorni okvir
OECD
GATT/WTO
NAFTA
EU
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
 OECD (GUIDING PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE INTERNATIONAL
ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES 1972)
 Where valid reasons for differences do not exist, governments should seek
harmonization of environmental policies, for instance, with respect to timing and
the general scope of regulation for particular industries to avoid the unjustified
disruption of international trade patterns and of the international allocation of
resources that may arise from diversity of national environmental standards.
 Measures taken to protect the environment should be framed as far as possible
in such a manner as to avoid the creation of non-tariff barriers to trade.
 Where products are traded internationally and where there could be significant
obstacles to trade, governments should seek common standards for polluting
products and agree on the timing and general scope of regulations for particular
products.
 It is highly desirable to define in common, as rapidly as possible, procedures for
checking conformity to product standards established for the purpose of
environmental control. Procedures for checking conformity to standards, to be
applied by an exporting country to the satisfaction of the importing country,
should be mutually agreed.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
 GATT/WTO
 Art III/4
 The products of the territory of any contracting party imported into
the territory of any other contracting party shall be accorded
treatment no less favourable than that accorded to like products of
national origin in respect of all laws, regulations and requirements
affecting their internal sale, offering for sale, purchase,
transportation, distribution or use. The provisions of this paragraph
shall not prevent the application of differential internal transportation
charges which are based exclusively on the economic operation of
the means of transport and not on the nationality of the product.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
 GATT/WTO (Note to III/4)
Any internal tax or other internal charge, or any law,
regulation or requirement of the kind referred to in
paragraph 1 which applies to an imported product and to
the like domestic product and is collected or enforced in
the case of the imported product at the time or point of
importation, is nevertheless to be regarded as an
internal tax or other internal charge, or a law, regulation
or requirement of the kind referred to in paragraph 1,
and is accordingly subject to the provisions of Article III.
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Omogočeni so torej ukrepi, ki ne
predstavljajo diskriminatornih ukrepov.
Kaj pa je z “nediskriminatornimi” ukrepi?
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
 GATT III/1
internal taxes and other internal charges, and
laws, regulations and requirements affecting the internal sale,
offering for sale, purchase, transportation, distribution or use
of products, and internal quantitative regulations requiring the
mixture, processing or use of products in specified amounts
or proportions, should not be applied to
imported or domestic products so as to
afford protection to domestic production
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT III/1 predvideva dokazno breme
tožeče stranke – protekcionizem zaradi
nediskriminatornih ukrepov bo težko
dokazati!
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
GATT XX
Subject to the requirement that such measures
are not applied in a manner which would
constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable
discrimination between countries where the
same conditions prevail, or a disguised
restriction on international trade, nothing in this
Agreement shall be construed to prevent the
adoption or enforcement by any contracting
party of measures:
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
(b) necessary to protect human, animal or
plant life or health;
(g) relating to the conservation of
exhaustible natural resources if such
measures are made effective in
conjunction with restrictions on domestic
production or consumption;
Zdravstveni in varnostni standardi
Restriktivna razlaga izjem
Dokazno breme na stranki, ki uporabi
izjemo
GATT - primeri
Thai Cigarettes
http://www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/gattpanels
/thaicigarettes.pdf
Tuna/Dolphin
Herring and Salmon
http://www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/gattpanels
/canadaherring.pdf
Beef Hormones
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
Kaj paneli upoštevajo pri presoji ukrepov,
ki jih države uvajajo z “opravičilom”
varstva zdravja?
1. ali je ukrep razumen in namenjen promociji
legitimnih ciljev ali gre za prikrito diskriminacijo?
2. ali je ukrep utemeljen z znanstvenimi
argumenti (scientific risk assessment)?
3. ali je ukrep sorazmeren z zasledovanim
ciljem?
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
 1. ali je ukrep razumen in namenjen promociji
legitimnih ciljev ali gre za prikrito diskriminacijo?
Ustrezen test?
 T.i. “sham test”
 Panel mora dejanje države (suverena!!!) okarakterizirati
kot slaboverno politiko
 Gre za precejšen poseg v suverenost, predvsem pa za
povsem subjektivno presojo
 Panel mora odločiti, kakšen je bil “resnični namen” države
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
 2. ali je ukrep utemeljen z znanstvenimi
argumenti (scientific risk assessment)?
Kljub prima facie objektivnosti tega testa gre pogosto za
vrednostno odločanje
Rezultati povsem odvisni od uporabljene metodologije
Odločanje o nasprotujočih si znanstvenih
argumentacijah
Imajo člani panelov (pravniki, diplomati) znanja, ki jim
omogočajo takšno neodvisno odločanje?
Sklepi iz odločb panelov
 3. ali je ukrep sorazmeren z zasledovanim
ciljem?
Proporcionalnost, Least Drastic Means test
Težave zaradi potrebe po karakterizaciji in vrednostni
oceni morebitnih alternativnih ukrepov, ki bi bili
sorazmerni
Lahko pride do aksiomatičnega, silogističnega odločanja
Pogosto paneli ne upoštevajo omejitev, ki enostavno ne
omogočajo uporabe alternativnih, manj restriktivnih
ukrepov!
Vprašanja glede znanstvene narave
ocenjevanja tveganj…
Del tega tudi  Sporazum WTO o
sanitarnih in fitosanitarnih standardih
(Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and
Phytosanitary Measures 1995)
Namen  vzpostaviti
?enoten?
?harmoniziran?
?učinkovit?
Sistem delovanja DČ na področju ukrepov
sanitarne in fitosanitarne narave
SPS sporazum
 Kaj so sanitarni in fitosanitarni ukrepi?
 1. Sanitary or phytosanitary measure — Any measure applied:
 (a) to protect animal or plant life or health within the territory of the Member from
risks arising from the entry, establishment or spread of pests, diseases, diseasecarrying organisms or disease-causing organisms;
 (b) to protect human or animal life or health within the territory of the Member
from risks arising from additives, contaminants, toxins or disease-causing
organisms in foods, beverages or feedstuffs;
 (c) to protect human life or health within the territory of the Member from risks
arising from diseases carried by animals, plants or products thereof, or from the
entry, establishment or spread of pests; or
 (d) to prevent or limit other damage within the territory of the Member from the
entry, establishment or spread of pests.
 Sanitary or phytosanitary measures include all relevant laws, decrees,
regulations, requirements and procedures including, inter alia, end product
criteria; processes and production methods; testing, inspection, certification and
approval procedures; quarantine treatments including relevant requirements
associated with the transport of animals or plants, or with the materials
necessary for their survival during transport; provisions on relevant statistical
methods, sampling procedures and methods of risk assessment; and packaging
and labelling requirements directly related to food safety.
SPS sporazum
 Področje ocenjevanja/omejevanja tveganj (risk
assessment)
 DČ samostojno odločajo o tveganjih in ukrepih za
njihovo preprečevanje
 Razlika v percepcijah tveganj (politični, ekonomski,
družbeni vplivi) 
 Potencialna omejevanja mednarodne trgovine
 Različni sistemi, metode ocenjevanja, omejevanja
tveganj
 Risk assessment / Precautionary principle
 Zato  SPS Agreement
 Načelo nediskriminatornosti
 Dvotirni sistem standardov za ukrepe
SPS sporazum
 Načelo nediskriminatornosti / sorazmernosti (2. člen SPS)
 Members have the right to take sanitary and phytosanitary measures
necessary for the protection of human, animal or plant life or health,
provided that such measures are not inconsistent with the provisions of
this Agreement.
 2. Members shall ensure that any sanitary or phytosanitary measure is
applied only to the extent necessary to protect human, animal or
plant life or health, is based on scientific principles and is not maintained
without sufficient scientific evidence, except as provided for in
paragraph 7 of Article 5.
 3. Members shall ensure that their sanitary and phytosanitary measures
do not arbitrarily or unjustifiably discriminate between Members
where identical or similar conditions prevail, including between their own
territory and that of other Members. Sanitary and phytosanitary
measures shall not be applied in a manner which would constitute a
disguised restriction on international trade.
SPS sporazum
 SPS sporazum uvaja dvotirni sistem dovoljenih
ukrepov
Harmonizacijski standard /Avtonomni standard
3. člen SPS (Harmonizacijski standard)
(1) [t]o harmonize sanitary and phytosanitary measures
… Members shall base their sanitary or phytosanitary
measures on international standards, guidelines or
recommendations, where they exist; …
(2) Sanitary or phytosanitary measures which conform
to international standards, guidelines or
recommendations shall be deemed to be necessary to
protect human, animal or plant life or health, and
presumed to be consistent with the relevant provisions
of this Agreement and of GATT 1994.
SPS sporazum
 SPS sporazum uvaja dvotirni sistem dovoljenih
ukrepov
Harmonizacijski standard /Avtonomni standard
3. člen SPS (Avtonomni standard)
3. Members may introduce or maintain sanitary or
phytosanitary measures which result in a higher level of
sanitary or phytosanitary protection than would be
achieved by measures based on the relevant
international standards, guidelines or recommendations,
if there is a scientific justification, or as a consequence
of the level of sanitary or phytosanitary protection a
Member determines to be appropriate in accordance
with the relevant provisions of paragraphs 1 through 8 of
Article 5.
SPS sporazum
 Temeljna težava (kot ste lahko ugotovili…)
Avtonomni standard
 SPS forsira harmonizacijo
 Možnost DČ, da intenzivno odstopajo od mednarodno
dogovorjenih standardov, je omejena.
 Beef Hormones
• Article 3.1 imposes an obligation on all Members to base their
sanitary measures on international standards except as
otherwise provided for in the SPS Agreement, and in particular
in Article 3.3 thereof. In this sense, Article 3.3 provides an
exception to the general obligation contained in Article 3.1.
 Izrazito “napeta” intepretacija! - sledi tudi - sicer
nepravilna – odločitev panela, da je dokazno breme zato
na toženi stranki…
SPS sporazum
Dodatna težava  kdaj so standardi, ki
odstopajo od mednarodnih, dovoljeni
(poleg nediskriminacije)
“…if there is a scientific justification…”
Ni sporazuma o metodi znanstvene
utemeljenosti
2 temeljni metodi 
Risk assessment
Precautionary principle
SPS sporazum
 Risk assessment
 Klasična, znanstvena metoda
 Znanost kot “nevtralni arbiter”
 Ni vrednot pri odločanju
 Širši družbeni konsenz ni pomemben/potreben
 Širok manevrski prostor za potencialne kršitelje
(multinacionalke…)
 Temeljni kriteriji:
 Hazard identification
 Dose-response evaluation
 Human exposure evaluation
 Risk characterization
SPS sporazum
Precautionary principle
RISK ASSESSMENT +
Upoštevanje družbenega konsenza
Upoštevanje preferenc potencialno ogroženih
Upoštevanje zgodovinskih, socialnih, političnih
parametrov
Ketelson:
• Those of us who support the Precautionary Principle do so in part because
we perceive our democratic rights to a clean environment and health have
been violated”
“This technocratic process (risk assessment) purports to put the decisions
into an objective framework but the process gives greater power to
corporate interests and tends to violate individual and collective rights to
health”
SPS sporazum
Pomanjkljivost  odprta vrata za
protekcionizem…
Ameriški pogled:
 The Precautionary Principle is a nebulous doctrine developed by Europeans as a
means to erect a trade barrier against any item that can be produced more
efficiently in the United States.
Evropski odgovor:
“We do not spend our days in Brussels – as some
might think – in Machiavellian plotting to apply
precaution to the detriment of US businesses”
(Margot Wallstrom: Head of European Union
Environmental Commission). NAZAJ
BEEF HORMONES (trgovinska vojna?)