Motivation
• Motivation = an internal state or condition
(sometimes described as a need, desire or
want) that serves to activate or energize
behavior and give it direction.
• What moves you to action?
Theories of Motivation Application: INSTINCT
BEHAVIOR IS
MOTIVATED BY…
APPLICATION…
• Unlearned, genetically
encoded programming.
• Completely emphasizes
biology and evolutionary
perspective
• Instincts = behavior patterns
that are automatic, involuntary,
uniform in expression and
universal in a species (i.e.,
imprinting)
• Only theory to completely
emphasize biology
• WEAK… however, we can
apply the characteristic of
genetic transmission to the fact
that some people are
biologically programmed to
become addicted more easily
than others
• Some psychologists argue that
there are social behavior
instincts (parenting mating,
belonging, jealousy) missing
the uniform in expression
component though
2
Theories of Motivation Application: DRIVE-REDUCTION
BEHAVIOR IS
MOTIVATED BY…
• Need  Drive  Drive Reducing
Behaviors
– Need = bio requirement
– Drive = an internal
(psychological state of
arousal) state of tension that
compels us to engage in
activities that should reduce
this tension
– Homeostasis = body’s
tendency to maintain constant
internal clock
– INTERNAL STATE pushing
individual in certain direction
APPLICATION…
• EXPLAINS MAINTENANCE
OF SMOKING… as she becomes
addicted over time
• Lack of nicotine (now a bio need
because of addiction)  psych
discomfort (drive)  smoke
(restoration of equilibrium)
3
Theories of Motivation Application: INCENTIVE
BEHAVIOR IS
MOTIVATED BY…
• External goals, such as
seeking of rewards (intrinsic
or extrinsic) or avoidance of
punishment (intrinsic or
extrinsic)
• EXTERNAL STIMULUS
pulls you in certain direction
• Take Work and Family
Orientation Survey (pgs 331
and 334)
APPLICATION…
• Smokes to be accepted by
peer group, to get attention
(positive reinforcement), or
to relieve stress (negative
reinforcement)
4
Fig. 12.1 Needs and incentives interact to determine drive strength (above). (a) Moderate
need combined with a high-incentive goal produces a strong drive. (b) Even when a strong
need exists, drive strength may be moderate if a goal’s incentive value is low. It is important
to remember, however, that incentive value lies “in the eye of the beholder.”
5
Theories of Motivation Application: OPTIMAL AROUSAL
•
•
•
•
•
•
BEHAVIOR IS
MOTIVATED BY…
APPLICATION…
Maintain optimal level (differs from
person to person) of physiological
stimulation (heart rate, muscle tension,
brain activity
Despite having all our biological needs
satisfied, we feel driven to experience
stimulation. Without it, we feel bored
and look for a way to increase arousal.
However, with too much stimulation
comes stress, and we then look for a way
to decrease arousal
Curiosity driven and risk taking
behaviors
• Completing work all day at school
 level of arousal is low so go
out and smoke
• Disobeying parents gives her a
thrill
Watch Sensation Seeking Video (V47); Extreme Sports: Why
People Do It?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fVgUnl0wu2c
Take Sensation Seeking Survey
http://www.ted.com/talks/susan_cain_the_power_of_introvert
s.html Shyness
6
Theories of Motivation Application: MASLOW’S HIERARCHY
OF NEEDS
BEHAVIOR IS
MOTIVATED BY…
APPLICATION…
• Desire to achieve maximum
potential, unless obstacles are
placed in the way, such as lower
physiological (food, water,
oxygen, sleep) and psychological
needs (safety, belonging, esteem).
• Until met, some motives are more
compelling than others at certain
points in our lives; however, a
given motive does not have to be
100% satisfied before we turn to
higher need and we don’t always
have to go in order
• Take Self-Actualization Survey (
• Since her biological and safety
needs are being met, she is
striving to meet her needs for
acceptance and belonging, which
she thinks is through smoking.
7
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Examines why some motives are more compelling than others at
certain points in our lives
• begins at the base
Self-actualization needs
with physiological
Need to live up to one’s
fullest and unique potential
needs that must first
be satisfied
Esteem needs
Need for self-esteem,
achievement, competence,
• then higher-level
and independence; need for
safety needs become
recognition and respect from others
active
Belongingness and love needs
Need to love and be loved, to belong
• then psychological
and be accepted; need to avoid
loneliness and alienation
needs become active
• A given motive did
Safety needs
Need to feel that the world is organized and
not have to be 100%
predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
satisfied before we
turn to a higher need
Physiological needs
Need to satisfy hunger and thirst
The Role of the Hypothalamus in Hunger and Satiety Matrix
Electrical Stimulation
Lesioning (Destruction)
Lateral
Hypothalamus
“ON SWITCH”
Ventromedial
Hypothalamus
“OFF SWITCH”
9
The Role of the Hypothalamus in Hunger and Satiety Matrix
Electrical Stimulation
Lateral
Hypothalamus
Lesioning (Destruction)
Rat eats – overeating
Triggers “on” switch
“ON SWITCH”
Monitors level of glucose (decrease in
glucose  LH produces orexin, which
increases hunger)
Ventromedial
Hypothalamus
“OFF SWITCH”
10
The Role of the Hypothalamus in Hunger and Satiety Matrix
Lateral
Hypothalamus
Electrical Stimulation
Lesioning (Destruction)
Rat eats – overeating
Rat doesn’t eat – undereating
Triggers “on” switch
Removes “on” switch
“ON SWITCH”
Monitors level of glucose (decrease in
glucose  LH produces orexin, which
increases hunger)
Ventromedial
Hypothalamus
“OFF SWITCH”
11
The Role of the Hypothalamus in Hunger and Satiety Matrix
Lateral
Hypothalamus
Electrical Stimulation
Lesioning (Destruction)
Rat eats – overeating
Rat doesn’t eat – undereating
Triggers “on” switch
Removes “on” switch
“ON SWITCH”
Monitors level of glucose (decrease in
glucose  LH produces orexin, which
increases hunger)
Rat stops eating
Ventromedial
Hypothalamus
“OFF SWITCH”
Triggers “off” switch
Monitors amount of leptin (Increase in
leptin, a protein produced by bloated fat
cells  decreases hunger)
Some forms of obesity are due to
malfunctioning leptin receptors in VMH
(defective db gene) or not producing
enough leptin (defective ob gene), so
there is nothing to trigger off switch
12
The Role of the Hypothalamus in Hunger and Satiety Matrix
Lateral
Hypothalamus
Electrical Stimulation
Lesioning (Destruction)
Rat eats – overeating
Rat doesn’t eat – undereating
until level off at lower weight
Triggers “on” switch
“ON SWITCH”
Removes “on” switch
Monitors level of glucose (decrease in
glucose  LH produces orexin, which
increases hunger)
Rat stops eating
Ventromedial
Hypothalamus
Triggers “off” switch
“OFF SWITCH” Monitors amount of leptin (increase in
leptin, a protein produced by bloated fat
cells  decreases hunger)
Some forms of obesity are due to not
having leptin receptors in VMH or not
producing enough leptin (ob gene is
defective), so there is nothing to trigger
off switch
Rat doesn’t stop eating –
overeating until level off at
higher weight
Removes “off” switch
Tumors in the VMH cause
obesity among humans.
Other Hormones Monitored by the Hypothalamus
Hormone
Tissue
Response
Orexin
Hypothalamus
Orexin =
hunger
Ghrelin
Stomach – responds to meal
schedules
Ghrelin =
hunger (bypass surgery
decreases ghrelin and anorexics have a
lot of it but ignore it)
Insulin
Pancreas - must be present
for cells to extract glucose
(sugar that the food is
converted into, providing
energy) from the blood and
store it in the fat deposits
Insulin = glucose (increases cells
uptake/extraction of glucose by
converting it to stored fat = hunger
Leptin
Fat cells – tells the brain that
the body’s fat reserves are
sufficient
Leptin =
PYY
Digestive tract – repeat
command to stop eating and
tells the stomach to stop
pushing food along until
food is broken down further
PYY =
Hunger
Hunger
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Instinct Theory: Hunger
(genetic programming; evolutionary perspective)
• Due to famines, we are programmed to overeat and to
fail to recognize when we’ve reached fullness
(http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/01/28/145865238/deception-diet-how-optical-illusions-can-trick-yourappetite?sc=17&f=1007Deception%20Diet:%20How%20Optical%20Illusions%20Can%20Trick%20Your%20Appetiteby%20Ted%20Burnham%20-%20January%2028,%202012)
• Taste Preferences
– Universal, genetic preference for sweet and salty
– More likely to quickly develop food aversions
associated with illness
– Dislike unfamiliar, novel foods
– Inherited taste genes
• Supertasters = increase survival in unsafe
environments (poisonous plants)
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• Nontasters = increase survival in safe environments
Drive-Reduction: Hunger
(homeostasis)
• Biological Need (Food)  Psychological Drive (Hunger) 
Drive-Reducing Behavior (Eat)
• Set Point = stable internal balance (homeostasis) ; maintain a
precisely balanced cycle of fueling and burning
• Glucose Set Point (short term)
Food =
Glucose =
Hunger  Eat
Food =
Glucose =
Hunger  Stop Eating
• Body Fat Set Point (15% Body Weight = fat)
Fat Stores (below 15%) = Body Metabolism =
Food Consumption =
Energy Outputs
16
Incentive Theory: Hunger
(learning)
• Creatures of dietary habit; feed us at 8 am, 1 pm, and
7 pm, and we learn to get hungry as those hours
approach  ghrelin is produced in response to meal
schedules and the sight or smell of food
• Weight-obsessed society – Fiji
• Externals—people whose eating is triggered more
by the presence of food than by internal factors.
Girls at camp who could not resist munching readily
visible M&M's, even after a full meal
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Optimal Arousal: Hunger
• Adolescent pranks: eat as much hot sauce;
drink a gallon of milk
• Try novel food
• http://www.npr.org/2012/05/03/151962981/
taste-testing-the-hot-saucespectrum?sc=emaf
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Maslow’s Hierarchy: Hunger
• Semistarvation experiment by Ancel Keys.
Consistent with Maslow's idea of a needs
hierarchy, the men became obsessed with
food. They talked food. They daydreamed
food. They collected recipes, read
cookbooks, and feasted their eyes on
delectable forbidden foods. At the same
time, they lost interest in sex and social
activities. They became preoccupied with
their unfulfilled basic needs.
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Anorexia: Biological Causes
• Ghrelin - ignore it or body has become
resistant to it
• Settling point - if diets are maintained, body
weight eventually stabilizes at a new lower
level. (EX: semistarved patients –their
bodies stabilized at about 25% below their
starting weights).
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UN2Cv52gB8
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Anorexia: Psychological Causes
• Faulty body image– internal picture of his
or her exterior form is exaggerated
• Obsessed with control and performance
• Information processing
Fig. 12.6 Women with abnormal
eating habits were asked to rate their
body shape on a scale similar to the
one you see here. As a group, they
chose ideal figures much thinner than
what they thought their current
weights were. (Most women say they
want to be thinner than they currently
are, but to a lesser degree than
women with eating problems.) Notice
that the women with eating problems
chose an ideal weight that was even
thinner than what they thought men
prefer. This is not typical of most
women. In this study, only women with
eating problems wanted to be thinner
than what they thought men find
attractive
Anorexia: Social Causes
• Insecurity; lack sound attachment
relationship (feeling safe and accepted)
• Challenging family settings
• Culture – Fiji; introduction of TV, the
number of schoolgirls who vomited to
control weight increased from 3% to 15% in
3 years.
• Media’s interpretation of beauty ideal.
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Obesity: Biological Causes
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ghrelin =
Hunger (gastic-bypass surgery reduces ghrelin
production, helping obese patients feel full longer)
Leptin =
Hunger (a small few have a congenital deficit in leptin
production or function - instructions to make leptin is defective in ob
mice; others do not respond to its signals normally because they have
become overexposed and thus resistant - db mice have defective leptin
receptors)
Activity of PPARs (receptors regulating energy consumption = fat
burned (obese people may have slow working PPARs)
Malfunction of MC-4 receptor
Reward Deficiency Syndrome
Tumors in VMH cause overeating
Settling Point – if we persist in eating too much our body may adjust to
the new rate of intake, and the set point may move to a higher level
23
Obesity: Psychological Causes
• Use food as comfort or reward  carbs help
boost levels of serotonin which has calming
effects.
• Time of Day + Memory of Last Meal
• Externals = sight and smell of food can trigger
hunger and eating, in part by stimulating a rise
in insulin level. Eating is triggered more by
the presence of food than by internal factors.
Girls at camp who could not resist munching
on M&M’s even after a full meal.
24
Obesity: Social Causes
• Oversized meal proportions
• Eating fast in fast paced culture. Eat in front of
tv, tv dinners which have many calories
• No exercise
• Commercials on dieting and food – mixed
messages
• Learned habits- people consume more food when
with others than alone.
25
Summary
26
Theories of Motivation
•
•
•
•
•
Instinct
– Engage in sexual behavior to procreate
– Sexual orientation is linked to genetic influences (i.e., maternal immune response affects fetus; hypothalamus cell
cluster is larger in heterosexual men; exposure to testosterone or estrogen also affects fetus)
– Mate selection:
• Men universally use good looks
• Women universally use social status
Drive-Reduction
– Biological Need (Sex)  Psychological Drive (Sexual Desire)  Drive-Reducing Behavior (Have Sex)
(*however, sex is not a true example of a need because if we do not have it, we do not die)
– Set Point = stable internal balance (homeostasis)
• Increase in testosterone in both sexes  increase in sexual desire
• Hypothalamus monitors variations in blood hormone levels and can extinguish sexual activity and activate it
• Sexual response cycle = excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution
Incentive
– External stimuli can trigger sexual arousal. See, hear, or read erotic material = increase in arousal and fantasies
– Sexual behavior is influenced by rewards (affection, love, feeling of belonging) or punishments (fear of STDs or
pregnancy)
Optimal Arousal
– Risky sexual behavior
Maslow’s Hierarchy
– Fulfill physiological needs before you can fulfill psychological needs. Some people might use sex to fulfill esteem
and belonging needs
27
Sexual Motivation
Sexual motivation is nature’s clever way of making people
procreate, enabling our species to survive.
Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human sexual
response cycle as consisting of four phases:
Phase
Physiological Response
Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina
Excitement expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges.
Plateau
Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and
blood pressure.
Orgasm
Contractions all over the body. Increase in
breathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release.
Resolution
Engorged genital release blood. Male goes
through refractory phase. Women resolve slower.
28
Hormones and Sexual Behavior
Sex hormones effect the development of sexual characteristics and
(especially in animals) activate sexual behavior.
Sex hormones may have milder affects on humans than on animals.
Women are more likely to have sex when close to ovulation (increased
testosterone), and men show increased testosterone levels when
socializing with women.
Male
Female
Testes
Ovaries
Testosterone
(Small amounts of estrogen)
Estrogen
Adrenals (Small amounts of testosterone)
Female animals “in heat” express peak levels of estrogen. Female
receptivity may be heightened with estrogen injections.
Levels of testosterone remain relatively constant in males, so it is
difficult to manipulate and activate sexual behavior. Castration,
which reduces testosterone levels, lowers sexual interest.
Contraception
Factors that reduce contraception use by teens
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ignorance: Canadian teen girls do not have the
right ideas about birth control methods.
Guilt Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reduces
sexual activity, but it also reduces the use of
contraceptives.
Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feel
uncomfortable discussing contraceptives.
Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex are
less likely to use contraceptives.
Mass Media: The media’s portrayal of unsafe
extramarital sex decreases the use of
contraceptives.
30
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Factors that reduce sexual activity in teens.
1.
2.
3.
4.
High Intelligence: Teens with higher intelligence
are likely to delay sex.
Religiosity: Religious teens and adults often reserve
sex for a marital commitment.
Father Presence: A father’s absence from home can
contribute to higher teen sexual activity.
Learning Programs: Teens who volunteer and tutor
in programs dedicated to reducing teen pregnancy
are less likely to engage in unsafe sex.
31
Sexual Orientation: Biology
32
Hormones & Sexual Orientation
Prenatal hormones affect sexual orientation
during critical periods of fetal development.
1. Animals: Exposure of a fetus to testosterone
results in females (sheep) exhibiting
homosexual behavior.
2. Humans: Exposure of a male or female fetus
to female hormones results in an attraction
to males.
Heterosexual
male
Homosexual
Heterosexual
female
33
Sexual Motivation
Hunger responds to a need. If we do not eat, we die. In
that sense, sex is not a need because if we do not have
sex, we do not die.
34
Theories of Motivation
•
•
•
•
•
Instinct
– Desire for significant accomplishment to aid survival or better take care of our
young.
Drive-Reduction
– Does not apply because achievement does not appear to satisfy any physiological
need
Incentive
Industrial/Organizational Psych
– Moderately difficult tasks
(Personnel, Organizational, Human
– Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation
Factors)
• Flow
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6X
• Overjustification effect
APnuFjJc
• Leadership Style (Task vs. Social; Theory X vs. Theory Y)
Optimal Arousal
– Yerkes-Dodson Law or Social Facilitation/Deterrence
Maslow’s Hierarchy
– Fulfill physiological needs before you can fulfill psychological needs. Some
people might use achievement to fulfill esteem, belonging needs, or selfactualization
35
Achievement Motivation
Achievement motivation is defined as a desire for significant
accomplishment.
People with a high need to achieve tend to: choose tasks
that allow for success, yet still require skill and effort, and
keep persisting until success is achieved. Choose
moderately difficult tasks – not hard or easy
Why does one person become more motivated to achieve than another?
Grit: passionate dedication to an ambitious, long-term goal
Emotional roots: learning to associate achievement with positive emotions.
Cognitive roots: learning to attribute achievements to one’s own
competence, thus raising expectations of oneself.
http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?SID=mail&articleID=18C98D80-E7F299DF-3BC33A063794BB37&chanID=sa003
Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology
Applies psychological principles to the workplace.
1. Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of selecting and evaluating
workers. Match people with jobs, by identifying and placing well-suited candidates.
 Identifying people’s strengths (analytical, disciplined, eager to learn etc.)
and matching them to a particular area of work is the first step toward
workplace effectiveness.
 Interviewers are confident in their ability to predict long-term job
performance (interviewer illusion). However, informal interviews are
less informative than standardized tests and structure interviews.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6XAPnuFjJc
2. Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management
styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity. Modify jobs
and supervision in ways that boost morale and productivity. Leadership styles (task vs.
social, theory x vs. theory y)
3. Human Factors Psychology: Explores how machines and environments can37be
designed to fit our natural perception.
Rewards Affect Motivation
Mom: “I’ll give you $5 for every A.’’
Controlling reward
Child: “As long as she pays,
I’ll study.’’
Extrinsic motivation
Mom: “Your grades were great!
Let’s celebrate by going out
for dinner.’’
Informative reward
Child: “I love doing well.’’
Intrinsic motivation
Overjustification Effect
Flow & Rewards
Flow is the experience between no work and a lot of work.
Flow marks immersion into one’s work. Person is in a
completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with
diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal
engagement of one’s skills
People who “flow” in their work (artists, dancers,
composers etc.) are driven less by extrinsic rewards
(external rewards - money, praise, promotion) and more
by intrinsic rewards (internal, personal enjoyment).
39
Yerkes-Dodson Law
• Arousal response - pattern
of physiological change that
helps prepare the body for
“fight or flight”
– muscles tense, heart rate
and breathing increase,
release of endorphins,
focused attention
– can be helpful or
harmful
– in general, high arousal
is beneficial for
instinctive, wellpracticed or physical
tasks and harmful for
novel, creative, or
careful judgment tasks
Performance peaks at lower levels of
arousal for difficult tasks, and at
higher levels for easy or well-learned
tasks
Motivational Conflict
• Motivational goals sometimes conflict with one another. When
something attracts us, we tend to approach it; when something
repels us, we tend to avoid it. Different combinations of these
tendencies can produce three basic types of conflict:
• Approach-approach conflict: occurs when we face two
attractive alternatives and selecting one means losing the others
(EX: choice between two desirable colleges)
• Avoidance-avoidance conflict: occurs when we must choose
between two undesirable alternatives (EX: studying boring
material for an exam or skip studying and fail)
• Approach-avoidance conflict: involves being attracted to and
repelled by the same goal (EX: desiring a relationship but
fearing the possibility of future rejection).
41
Interviews
Interviewer Illusion: Interviewers often overrate their discernment.
1.
Intention vs. Habits: Intensions matter, but long- lasting habits matter
even more.
2.
Successful Employees: Interviewers are more likely to talk about those
employees that turned out successful.
3.
Presumptions about Candidates: Interviewers presume (wrongly) that
what we see (candidate) is what we get.
4.
Preconceptions: An interviewer’s prior knowledge about the candidate
may affect her judgment.
Structured Interview: A formal and disciplined way of gathering
information from the interviewee. Structured interviews pinpoint
strengths (attitudes, behaviors, knowledge, and skills). The
personnel psychologist may do the following:
1.
Analyze the job.
2.
Script questions.
3.
Train the interviewer.
42
Leadership Style
Different organizational demands need different kinds of leaders.
Leadership varies from a boss-focused style to a democratic style.
1.
2.
Task Leadership: Involves setting standards, organizing work,
and focusing on goals.
Social Leadership: Involves mediating conflicts and building
high achieving teams.
Whether managers favor a participative/democratic approach depends not
only on their personality but also on their assumptions about human
motivation:
1. Theory X: Managers assume that workers are basically lazing, errorprone, and extrinsically motivated by money. Thus, they need simple
tasks, close monitoring, and incentives to work harder
2. Theory Y: Managers assume that people are intrinsically motivated to
work for reasons beyond money – to promote self-esteem, enjoy
satisfying relations with others, and fulfill their potential. Thus, given
enough freedom and challenge, employees will strive to demonstrate
43
their competence and creativity.
Satisfaction & Engagement
Employee engagement means that the worker:
Capital-Journal/ David Eulitt/ AP/ Wide World Photos
1. Knows what is expected of
him.
2. Has what is needed to do
the work.
3. Feels fulfilled at work.
4. Has opportunities to do
his best.
5. Thinks himself to be a part
of something significant.
6. Has opportunities to learn
and develop.
Engaged workers are more productive
than non-engaged workers at different stores
of the same chain.
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