AP Psychology
Motivation and Emotion
coping strategies
Coping strategies are active methods of deal with, conquer or reduce
the effects caused by stress. There are both negative (unhealthy) and
positive (healthy) ways of coping and how people cope is determined
largely by their environment, upbringing or even culture.
cross-cultural studies
Cross-cultural studies are attempts by psychologists to evaluate or
measure the same trait within many countries or cultures. This can
allow scientists to determine the degree to which a trait is inherent
or a product of one’s culture.
For example, a study could be done to measure the importance of
personal achievement and how it impacts one’s behavior. Certainly,
such a study would produce different results in the United States
compared to Papua New Guinea. Individuality itself could be
measured between a western country and an east Asian country.
emotions
Comprising several components, emotion involves a subjective
conscious experience (the cognitive component) accompanied by
bodily arousal (the physiological component) and by characteristic
overt expressions (the behavioral component).
Due to the preponderance of emotion in our daily lives,
psychologists have spent an inordinate amount of time trying to
decipher emotions – including how they happen and how they
impact us.
defense mechanisms
Defense mechanisms are largely unconscious reactions that protect a
person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt. They
defend against emotional discomfort created by stress and triggering
anxiety. Guilt and dejection are two other common emotions avoided.
By creating a fantasy world through self-deception, we are blinded
from the truth of a situation, making it easier to cope. While Freud
thought that defense mechanisms were the sole product of the
unconsciousness, later studies dispelled that idea. There is a debate
on the healthiness of them. On one hand, it’s an avoidance of reality
and on some level, that is not the best way to deal with issues. Others
suggest that there are positive illusions but the mainstream voice on
the subject says that such a term does not exist.
emotion theories:
Cannon-Bard theory
The Cannon-Bard Theory is based on a psychological theory where
Walter Cannon argued against James-Lange theory saying the base of
emotion is the thalamus (a thought later refined by Philip Bard).
Cannon suggested that some experience happens before the visceral
reaction and additionally, some of the visceral reaction is too similar
to create so many different emotions.
Later elaborated by Bard (1934), the combined theory put forth
suggests emotion occurs only after the thalamus sends signals
simultaneously to the cortex (creating the conscious experience) and
to the autonomic nervous system (creating the visceral arousal).
Example: The dog makes me tremble and feel afraid.
emotion theories:
cognitive-appraisal theory
Cognitive appraisal theory is a psychological theory that describes
emotions as a confusing, cloudy mix of physiological arousal and
cognitive evaluation.
One source suggests it is not unlike when you are driving – you are
using a combination of physical preparedness in order to be able to
react while also observing and evaluating everything around you –
let’s hope.
emotion theories:
evolutionary theory
As Stanley Schachter’s creative two-factor theory was challenged,
some theorists returned to Charles Darwin’s idea that emotion was
an evolutionary feature. These theorists suggest that emotion
evolved before thought and therefore, the latter cannot lead to the
former. These theorists have also suggested that evolution has
given people a small group of emotions with proven adaptive value.
According to these theorist, there are roughly 8 to 10 base emotions
and as for the many others we feel, evolutionary theorists suggest
that other emotions are an amalgamation of the primary emotions.
emotion theories:
James-Lange theory
The James-Lange Theory is based on a psychological theory where
William James and Carl Lange (1885) put forth the theory that the
conscious experience of emotion results from one’s perception of
autonomic arousal.
In this scenario, a person is first confronted by fear stimuli, an
autonomic arousal occurs and then the person perceives fear as a
conscious feeling.
Example: I feel afraid because I tremble.
Different patterns of autonomic activation leads to different
emotions experienced.
emotion theories:
opponent-process theory
Opponent-Process Theory is a cognitive theory that suggests that the
stimulus that causes one emotion, if removed, will create the
opposite emotion.
emotion theories:
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory
Stanley Schachter (1979) suggested that emotional experience is the
product of two factors – autonomic arousal and cognitive
interpretation of that arousal. According to the Schachter-Singer twofactor theory, when the fear stimuli is presented, your autonomic
arousal is triggered while you are trying to establish what is actually
happening, which then determines what emotion you end up
experiencing. This explains how different people react to the same
stimuli differently.
health psychology
Health psychology is a field of study concerned with how
psychosocial factors relate to the promotion and maintenance of
health and with the causation, prevention and treatment of illness.
motive and motivation
Motivation is an internal element that propels people towards
certain behavior to achieve a certain goal.
Psychologists study all matters of motivation – toward economic or
material success, criminal behavior, family instincts and a myriad of
things. The study of motivation is at the core of understanding why
humans do as they do.
physiological motives:
anorexia nervosa
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that is most common with
adolescent females. The individual does not eat and exhibits
extreme weight loss and is accompanied with an unrealistic selfimage that says, no matter how thin and emaciated they are, they
are still fat.
Famed singer Karen Carpenter’s anorexia and eventual death
brought the first concentrated attention on the disorder and the
pressures that push people, particularly young girls, into this pattern
of behavior.
physiological motives:
bisexuality, heterosexuality, homosexuality
When it comes to explanations of sexual behavior, nothing is as
controversial and potentially as explosive as explanations of sexual
orientation, referring to a person’s preference for emotional and
sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex or
either sex.
Bisexuality – those who seek emotional-sexual relationships with
members of both sexes.
Heterosexuality – those who seek emotional-sexual relationships with
members of the other sex.
Homosexuality – those who seek emotional-sexual relationships with
member of the same sex.
physiological motives:
bulimia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by eating
followed by purging either by way of vomiting or laxatives.
Long term vomiting can also cause associative gum disease and teeth
breakdown due to the stomach acid constantly brought into the
mouth.
physiological motives: hunger
As a motivation, hunger is a drive that compels all living things to
eat. Because it is a primary drive, it is often used to control animals
and people as a means of a behavior regulator.
The initial thought was that the hypothalamus was the on/off
switch for one’s hunger but more recent studies have suggested
that it comprises merely elements of the neural circuitry that deals
with hunger. For example, recent studies show the paraventricular
nucleus (PVN) is key to the modulation of hunger but again – we are
talking about circuitry and not an “X”-marks-the-spot theory.
physiological motives: pain
Pain is a motivating factor that leads organisms to avoid or escape
situations that cause extreme discomfort.
physiological motives: set point
There was a study measuring the body mass index of adults raised by
foster parents, compared with biological parents. The study showed
that there was a greater connection between the subjects and their
biological parents. The findings of this and other similar studies
suggest that there is a large genetic connection between a person’s
genetic make-up and their weight.
Richard Keesey (1995) suggested that each person has a set point – a
natural point of stability in one’s body weight. This is not universally
accepted but set point advocates suggest the lost or gaining of weight
only changes the size of fat cells, not the amount.
physiological motives:
sex and sexual orientation
Sex is a biological drive to procreate that all living organisms seek to
fulfill.
Sexual orientation refers to the preference a person shows in seeking
emotional and sexual relationships. This can be with individuals of
the same sex (homosexuality), the opposite sex (heterosexuality) or
either sex (bisexuality).
physiological motives:
sexual response cycle
In the 1960s, William Masters and Virginia Johnson did
groundbreaking research on physiological traits of sexual arousal.
They identified four phases that make up the sexual response cycle:
Excitement phase – The biological preparation for sex.
Plateau phase – This is the slow buildup of sexual arousal.
Orgasm phase – The peak of sexual intensity and a discharged
through muscular contractions that pulsate through
the pelvic area.
Resolution phase – This is the post-sexual activity phase.
For Masters and Johnson, their research highlighted the physiological
causes and characteristics of sexual arousal but in identifying sexual
problems, it became equally clear that psychological issues are at
play.
physiological motives: thirst
Thirst compels organisms to drink and is seen with mouth dryness
and on a microbiology level, cells shrink with loss of water. External
cues that trigger thirst include sight and smell of liquids.
Certain medical conditions can heighten the need for fluids and the
motive of thirst including diabetes and hypoglycemia.
positive psychology
Positive psychology is a study on those things which are going well
with a person. This is a rather new field of endeavor that focuses on
how people can achieve happiness or completeness.
Selye’s General Adaption Syndrome
alarm reaction, resistance, exhaustion stage
Put forth by Hans Selye, the general adaption syndrome highlighted
the stages of the body’s reaction to stress. This includes:
Alarm reaction – stressors ignite the sympathetic nervous
system into action.
Resistance – physical signs of the sympathetic nervous system
include raised body temperatures, blood pressure as
well as adrenalin.
Exhaustion – the end result of dealing with stress can include
a weakened immune system, emotional issues or
death.
social conflict situations:
approach-approach conflicts
There are three types of conflicts as suggested by Kurt Lewin
(1935) and extensively studied and experimented with by Neal
Miller (1959).
One type is referred to as approach-approach conflict where a
choice must be made between two attractive goals. This tends to
be the least stressful of conflicts because a nice ending is typically
the result.
social conflict situations:
approach-avoidance conflicts
There are three types of conflicts as suggested by Kurt Lewin (1935)
and extensively studied and experimented with by Neal Miller
(1959).
One type is referred to as approach-avoidance conflict where a
choice must be made about whether to pursue a single goal with
both attractive and unattractive qualities. Should you take the new
job that offers an additional $50,000 a year but is in Cleveland,
Ohio? This type of scenario typically creates indecision for the
person that can be paralytic.
social conflict situations:
avoidance-avoidance conflicts
There are three types of conflicts as suggested by Kurt Lewin (1935)
and extensively studied and experimented with by Neal Miller
(1959).
One type is referred to as avoidance-avoidance conflict where a
choice must be made between two unattractive goals. This is the
proverbial “between a rock and a hard place” can be highly
stressful. Do you allow your best friend’s boyfriend to continue
cheating on her or do you tell your best friend that the man she
loves the most is a scoundrel who deserves to be cut loose?
social conflict situations:
multiple approach-avoidance conflicts
It is a lazy Sunday afternoon and within a span of ten minutes, two
friends call you – one offering a ticket to see your favorite team and
another who offers a ticket to see your favorite band. They are both
performing/playing at the same time. The problem is, you also have
a difficult test to study for Monday and you promised your mother
you would clean up the kitchen this evening.
First of all, you are way too popular and second of all, you
overcommit. That notwithstanding, this is an example of a multiple
approach-avoidance conflict, situations where there are several
alternatives to take that have both positive and negative aspects.
social motives: affiliation motive
While some animals – like bears and eagles – have little problem with
being alone for prolonged periods of time, humans are not like that.
Affiliation motive refers to the need to associate with others and
maintain social bonds and includes friendship and love.
Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary (1995) compiled an overview of
affiliation and explained it as an evolutionary process as we seek
companionship for the purpose of safety, survival and reproduction
benefits. There is even a test – Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) –
that measures the degree to which we are inclined towards groups.
The difference between those who score high or low tend to differ
with one, the time spent on interpersonal activities and two, the
degree to which one is concern about being accepted by others.
social motives: extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation refer to reinforcers that are not biological or
self-created to pursue a certain behavior.
A student who is motivated to learn more in school in order to
obtain higher grades, greater recognition or approval from parents
are acting on extrinsic motivation.
social motives: intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to the pursuit of activities because it is
personally rewarding or fulfills something within.
A student who is motivated to learn more because of a curiosity
or a desire to know more is working on intrinsic motivation.
social motives:
need for achievement
The need for achievement has been the subject of much research
and experimentation over the last century. These efforts have
shown that people that are future-oriented and have in mind many
long-term goals are more inclined towards achievement motivation
compared to those who lack both.
People who are like this also report higher levels of success and
happiness, suggesting that their approach paid off more times than
not. While the idea of achievement motives are not that different
from one culture to another, the method by which and reason for
which people chase this dream is.
social motives:
overjustification effect
When a parent watches their teen clean their room (something the
teen always does), the parent offers the child $10 every time he does
it – to reward his behavior. When the child uses the money to justify
the cleaning of the room (away from whatever motivated them
before), this is an example of an overjustification effect. Typically,
when the money is removed from the equation, the cleaning of the
room stops (though they used to do it without the money).
stress and stressful life events
catastrophes, significant life events, daily hassles
Stress refers to the physiological and psychological reactions to
stressors or that which causes stress. There are two main types of
stress – dystress is harmful stress and eustress is helpful stress.
As for the stressors, they can take several forms. This includes
catastrophes (floods, terrorist attacks or combat experience),
significant life events (death of a parent, marriage or having a child)
and daily hassles (traffic or work).
theories of motivation:
arousal theory
The arousal theory of motivation states that everyone has an
individualized level of arousal needed to perform certain tasks.
When we speak of arousal, we are speaking of the level of alertness
and wakefulness one has. This is triggered by activity within the
central nervous system.
A chef who has chopped vegetables her entire life will not require as
much alertness or wakefulness (though it is not a bad idea) in cutting
vegetables as someone who seldom does so.
theories of motivation:
drive reduction theory
The drive reduction theory says that our acting on drives is design to
decrease tension in the body and bring balance or create
homeostasis.
theories of motivation:
incentive theory
Incentive refers to something external that motivates behavior.
The idea of incentives have been heavily studied with regards to its
short and long-term impact on behavior.
theories of motivation:
instinct theory
Instincts refer to natural tendencies towards engaging in a particular
behavior. While some psychologists have attempted to refer to
instincts as an explanation of behavior, other, more recent scientists
suggest it only labels behavior, it does not explain it.
theories of motivation:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow, an American psychologist, developed a scale that
arranged our needs from the lowest, most primal ones to the more
advanced, transcending ones. It was known as his hierarchy of
needs. Each need serves as a prerequisite to the next one.
At the bottom of his triangle breakdown are the basic needs that
include physiological needs (food, water, warmth, rest) and then
safety needs (security). This is followed by psychological needs that
include a sense of belonging (friendships, love) and esteem needs
(prestige, respect and feeling accomplishment). At the top of this
hierarchy is self-actualization, defined as achieving one’s full
potential.
type A and type B personalities
Type A personalities are those described as high achievers. They
typically are competitive and impulsive. Everything is done at a fastpace, whether it is necessary or not. While being this way is not
inherently a bad idea, these kinds of people are more likely to suffer
from health issues such as cardiovascular disease (as seen with heart
attacks).
Type B personalities tend to be more laid back, approaching life a bit
more calmly. As a result, things are not as rushed or hurried as our
super active friends above.