1
Education in a
Changing Society
Chapter 1
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2
The Reality of Social Change
Two major social changes affecting education
are taking place:
– Changes in demographics
– Changes in social institutions
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3
Demographics in Transition
Three factors resulting in changing
demographics:
– High immigration rates
– High birthrates among some segments of the
population
– Aging population
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4
Institutions in Transition
A social institution is a formal, recognized,
established, and stabilized way of pursuing
some important activity in society.
Social institutions provide rules, or social norms,
that become internalized in individuals.
When institutions change, so do the norms they
provide.
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5
Changes in Institutions
In today’s world, all social institutions are
experiencing fundamental change:
–
–
–
–
Economics—globalization
Politics—new alignments of nations
Family—new forms of family life
Religion—rise of fundamentalism in all world religions
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6
Changes in Economics and
Politics
Economically, there has been a shift from:
– Loyalty to a single company to loyalty to one’s own
self-interest
– A national to a global focus
Politically, there has been a shift from:
– Political interest within our own borders to interest in
political events around the world
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7
Changes in the Family
More women are in the workforce.
The divorce rate is high.
More families are in poverty.
New family “forms” are becoming common (e.g.,
single-parent families, blended families).
More intermarriage between ethnic and religious
groups.
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8
Changes in Religious
Organizations
Immigrants are bringing unfamiliar religions and
religious ideas to the society.
Various “new age” religious affiliations are emerging.
There is a rise in fundamentalist religious groups in
all major religions.
Religious groups are becoming important “players”
in the political arena, both in the US and globally.
Gaps of understanding of religion are changing
between the “net” generation and the older
generation.
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9
Schools as a Reflection of
Social Change
Changing demographics among students
– Increasing number of children of color
– Increasing numbers of children whose first language
is not English
– Increasing inclusion of children with disabilities in
classrooms
– Increasing attention to differential treatment of boys
and girls in classrooms
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10
Limited English Proficiency
Most Language English Proficient (LEP)
students speak Spanish.
The United States is the fifth largest Spanishspeaking country in the world.
More than half of LEP students are in grades
K–4, and more than three-quarters are poor.
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11
Inclusion
Legal support for inclusion:
– Public Law 94-142, Education of All Handicapped
Children Act (1975)
– Amendments to P.L. 94-142, Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 1990, 1992, 1997)
More children with disabilities are being
educated side by side with children without
disabilities.
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12
Gender and Schooling
While girls have not been thought to be
educationally different from boys, their
experiences in school are often very different.
The focus has shifted from research on the
educational outcomes of girls to equal concerns
about the educational outcomes of boys.
Title IX sought to eliminate discrimination on the
basis of sex.
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13
Students and Teachers: A
Clash of Cultures?
Increasingly, the student population in schools is
a multicultural one, while the population of
teachers remains much as it has almost always
been: white, middle class, and predominantly
female—in short, monocultural. This can create
something of a clash of cultures between
students and teachers.
Teachers who are culture bound have little
knowledge or experience with people from
different cultures. This limits their ability to
interact effectively with students who are
different from themselves.
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14
Rethinking Schools and
Learning
As society changes, schools must also change
to accommodate new needs.
Thus, there is a national movement for school
reform.
Reform efforts aimed at “leaving no child behind”
through testing and accountability.
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15
Schools in Transition
In education, we are experiencing a shift from:
– schools that educate an elite, to schools that educate
everyone to the same standard;
– schools that emphasize rote learning, to schools that
emphasize critical thinking;
– schools that emphasize teaching, to schools that
emphasize learning.
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16
The Root Causes of Change
New circumstances in the society in which
schools are embedded
– 19th–20th Centuries: Schools reflected the needs of
an emerging industrial society.
– 20th–21st Centuries: Schools are changing to reflect
the needs of an emerging information society.
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17
Classrooms for an
Industrial Age
Futurist Alvin Toffler calls the industrial age a
“Second Wave Civilization”; characteristics of
classrooms for this era include:
–
–
–
–
–
Standardization
Synchronization
Specialization
Centralization
Large scale
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18
Standardization in a classroom
might be demonstrated by:
All teachers are certified by standard criteria;
Teachers and students dress according to a
district-wide standard dress code;
Textbooks and/or a course of study are the
same for all students in grade level or subject;
Student performance is judged by standardized
tests;
For the most part, students work individually;
and
Students compete for grades, awards, etc.
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19
Synchronization in a classroom
might be demonstrated by:
Class periods are of equal length; so are times
between class periods;
Each subject is taught on a regular basis,
usually—but not always—daily;
The school day is planned and coordinated
according to a regular schedule;
The school year is planned in advance.
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20
Specialization in a classroom
means that:
Subjects are divided by disciplines; there is little
interdisciplinary study;
Teachers, administrators, clerical, and support
staff have differentiated roles;
Ancillary personnel (e.g., nurses, counselors,
etc.) also have specific and differentiated roles.
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Centralization means that many
policy decisions are made at the
district level
21
Centralized decisions are often made about:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Curriculum
Budgets
Purchasing
Attendance
Discipline
Scheduling
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22
Large scale means that, in
general, “bigger is better”
This tendency toward large scale can be
seen in:
–
–
–
–
–
Large districts
Large buildings
Large auditoriums
Large bands
Large football stadiums
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23
Classrooms for an
Information Age
Toffler names the present information age a
“Third Wave Civilization.” Characteristics of
classrooms for this era include:
–
–
–
–
–
Individualization and choice
Collaboration
Diversity
Decentralization
Small scale
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24
Individual choice
may mean that:
Within a broad range of standards, teachers and
students may make decisions about curriculum
and pedagogy;
Students and teachers may make decisions
about learning activities; and
Students and teachers may set classroom rules
to produce an effective learning environment.
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25
Collaboration in such a
classroom might look like this:
Teachers across subject areas and disciplines
might plan lessons and units together;
Parents and community members might be
actively involved in classroom activities; and
Groups of students might often be found working
together on projects and lessons.
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26
Diversity in the classroom might
look like this:
Students of different ages may be working
together;
Students of differing abilities may be working
together;
Students and teachers may be acting in multiple
roles;
Students and teachers may be incorporating
multiple disciplines in their work; and
Students may be of diverse cultural
backgrounds.
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27
Decentralization often means
school-based decision making
Called site-based management, school-based
decision making may involve:
–
–
–
–
–
Setting learning goals
Planning the school budget
Setting attendance policies
Developing dress codes
Hiring new teachers and other personnel
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28
Small scale means more
face-to-face interaction
Classes are smaller.
Everyone knows everyone else.
Students work with a variety of adults.
Adults work with a variety of students.
It is easier to develop really meaningful learning
communities and a sense of belonging for
everyone.
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29
As schools move through this
transitional period, remember:
Change is difficult.
Human beings often react to change with
hostility.
Human beings often react to change by
resisting it.
New circumstances often mean new
opportunities; it’s up to you. . .
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30
Ideological Perspectives on
Multicultural Education
Attention to differences among students is not
new.
The nature of the differences to which we must
attend is broadening.
Multicultural education is becoming less a matter
of differences within the United States and more
a global phenomenon.
Multicultural education assures that all students
from all groups (racial, ethnic, socioeconomic,
ability, gender, etc.) experience educational
equality, success, and mobility.
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31
A New Role for Teachers
To recognize social and cultural change
To understand culture, learning, and the culturelearning process; teachers must expand their
knowledge base of culture and different groups in
the US and abroad
To be able to improve intergroup and intragroup
interactions
To transmit intercultural understanding and skills to
students; teachers must be proactive and reflective
practitioners so students are prepared to become
reflective citizens in an interdependent world
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32
The Importance of Stories
Stories help a person visualize and talk about
new ideas and experiences.
Stories often “speak to” complex human
experiences.
Stories help us to see the universality of
common experiences.
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33
Something to Think About
“The illiterate of the twenty-first century will not
be those who cannot read and write, but those
who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn.”
—Alvin Toffler
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34
Multicultural Education:
Historical and
Theoretical Perspectives
Chapter 2
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35
Historical Perspectives on
Pluralism
We have been different from the beginning.
– European immigrants met highly developed
civilizations already here.
– English culture became dominant because of a
slightly more tolerant attitude and their own need for
religious freedom.
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36
Industrialization: Immigration
and Religious Pluralism
The first type of difference to influence schooling
was economic (social class).
– The common school was largely a response to
differences between rich and poor.
As the industrial revolution grew and spread,
new immigrants from Europe brought
Catholicism—and thus, religious difference—into
a largely Protestant country. As a result, battles
were waged not around race or ethnicity, but
around the issue of religion.
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The Civil War: Freedmen’s
Schools and the Issue of Race
37
Race became important to schooling after the
Civil War.
The Freedmen’s Bureau established schools for
blacks in the South, a process that was
characterized by the same kind of violence as
had characterized the development of Catholic
schools in the North.
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38
Segregation and the Law
Black children remained in segregated schools
that were both underfunded and often open only
part of the year.
In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v.
Ferguson that “separate but equal” schools for
blacks and whites was constitutional.
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39
The Civil Rights Movement and
the Schools
Beginning with Brown v. Board of Education in
1954, the Civil Rights Movement gained
momentum during the 1960s and 1970s,
resulting in antidiscrimination laws involving not
only race, but also differences in language,
gender, and disability.
In education, the chief concerns were access to
and equity in to public education.
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40
Historical Perspectives on
Multicultural Education
In the history of public schooling two approaches
to difference, based on two different ideologies,
have been utilized:
– Anglo-conformity, or the assimilationist model
– Multiculturalism, or the pluralist model
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41
Anglo-Conformity, or the
Assimilationist Model
From 1860–1920, 37 million immigrants became
naturalized citizens.
An important task of schooling was thought to be
turning these new citizens into “Americans” as
quickly as possible.
Assimilationists believed that one’s identification
with one’s ethnic group should be short-lived
and temporary.
cont.
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42
Assimilationists believed that in order for society
to advance, individuals must give up their ethnic
identities, languages, and ideologies in favor of
the norms and values of the larger, national
society.
The goal for assimilationists is to make it
possible for everyone to be “melted” into a
homogeneous whole.
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The “Model” of American
Culture
43
“Real” Americans are:
–
–
–
–
Mostly white, mostly middle class (or trying to be)
Mostly Protestant but sometimes Catholic
Heterosexual
Work hard, eat well, stand on their own two feet,
expect their children to behave themselves
– Wash themselves a good deal and generally try to
smell “good”
– Patriotic, charitable (as long as those receiving the
charity try to “shape up”)
– Believe in “good, old fashioned, common sense” not
what is written in books by educated people
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44
The Importance of Schooling in
Producing “Real” Americans
Those who do not “fit” the dominant model of
“American” must be encouraged, or forced, to
reflect these characteristics, because such
differences make them dangerous to the
maintenance of America as it is “supposed”
to be.
cont.
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45
The schools are the chosen institution to take on
the task of making children who are culturally
different into “American” children, that is to teach
them the proper way to behave, think, and value
so they will fit harmoniously into the
monoculturalist’s culture.
Large urban school districts formed separate
classes or repositories for “unrulies” and for
“backward” or “dull” students because they did
not “fit.” Special education emerged as a
separate system within the public schools.
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46
Multiculturalism, or the Pluralist
Ideology
In contrast to the assimilationist ideology, a
small group of philosophers and writers came
forward with the notions of cultural pluralism and
cultural democracy.
Pluralists assert that immigrant groups (and, by
extension, all identity groups) are entitled to
maintain their distinctions within the larger
American society.
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47
Pluralist Assumptions
One’s social groups are essential to one’s sense
of belonging and psychological support.
It is through one’s primary groups that one
learns language, as well as attitudes and values.
These groups are so important that their
interests should be promoted and recognized.
The schools are the chosen institution to take on
this task.
Pluralists believe that the more congruent the
school experience is with the experiences of the
child, the better the child’s chance of success.
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48
Legislative and Judicial
Landmarks
A number of legislative and judicial landmarks
have addressed issues of access and equity in
terms of:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Issues of race
Issues of religion
Issues of language
Issues of gender
Issues of disability
Issues of social class
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49
Issues of Race
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)–“separate but equal
schooling” is constitutional
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)– “separate
schooling is inherently unequal, and therefore,
unconstitutional”
Brown v. Board of Education II (1955)– schools
must desegregate with “all deliberate speed”
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50
Implementing Brown v. Board
Green v. School Board of New Kent County
(1968)—“freedom of choice” plans could not be
used to avoid desegregation
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of
Education (1971)—authorized mandatory busing
Milliken v. Bradley I and II (1973, 1977)—Detroit
schools not allowed to mandate cross-district
busing (usually thought to be the beginning of
the end of busing as a strategy for
desegregation)
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51
Issues of Religion
Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925)— legitimized
parochial and other private schools
Engle v. Vitale (1962)—mandatory prayer
violates separation of church and state
Abington School District v. Schempp (1963)—
public schools cannot begin the day with
required prayer or Bible reading
cont.
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52
Epperson v. State of Arkansas (1968)— schools
cannot ban the teaching of evolution
Edwards v. Aguillard (1987)—no state can
require that the Biblical version of creation be
taught
Board of Education of Westside Community
Schools v. Mergens (1990)—students may
organize and participate in Christian clubs that
meet before or after school hours
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53
Issues of Language
Bilingual Education Act (1968)—provided
funding for bilingual education programs
Diana v. State Board of Education (1968)— tests
for eligibility for special education services must
be given in the dominant language of the
student
Lau v. Nichols (1974)—affirmative steps must be
taken by a school district to rectify language
deficiencies
cont.
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54
Keyes v. School District No. 1 (1977)—bilingual
education is compatible with desegregation
Martin Luther King, Jr. Elementary School
Children v. Ann Arbor School District Board of
Education (1979)—legitimated Black English as
a dialect
Proposition 227 (1998, California)—required
schools to teach Limited English Proficient (LEP)
students in special classes, mostly in English, for
not more than one year
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55
Issues of Gender
Title IX, Education Amendments (1972)—
prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex in
schools receiving federal aid
Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools
(1992)— schools receiving federal funds can be
sued for sex discrimination and harassment
Alida Star Gebser and Alida Jean Mccullough v.
Lago Vista Independent School District (1998)—
made it difficult to recover damages from a
school district for sexual harassment
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56
Issues of Disability
Education of All Handicapped Children Act
(1976)— made schools responsible for
education “in the least restrictive environment”
Honig v. Doe (1988)—special education
students who are disruptive may not be
suspended or expelled without due process
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA,
1990)—extended services to age 21
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1992)—
extended rights of people with disabilities to the
private sector
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57
Issues of Social Class and
School Funding
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(1965)—provides funding for Title I and for
Head Start
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(1981)
Rose v. Council for a Better Education (1989)—
Kentucky Supreme Court declares property tax
basis for school funding unconstitutional
cont.
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58
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(1991)
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(2001)—No Child Left Behind Act vastly
increases federal role in public education
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59
Public Responses to Multicultural
and Bilingual Education Reforms
One group consists of those who advocate
programs such as multicultural and bilingual
education.
Another group consists of those who oppose any
special programs, either because:
– they believe “traditional” schooling provides sufficient
upward mobility, or
– they believe pluralistic approaches will destroy the
country.
cont.
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60
A third group asserts that pluralism in education
should not be viewed as either a remedial form
of education or an effort at reparation, but rather
as the long-overdue affirmation of a social
reality.
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61
Theoretical Perspectives on
Multicultural Education
Sleeter and Grant propose five types of
multicultural education:
–
–
–
–
–
Teaching the culturally different
Human relations approach
Single-group studies
Inclusive multicultural education
Education that is multicultural and social
reconstructionist
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62
Teaching the Culturally Different
These approaches attempt to counter a
perceived cultural deficiency
Develop competence in the dominant culture
Maintain self-identity and retain own cultural
identity
May mask an assimilationist ideology
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63
Human Relations Approach
Assumes multicultural education is a means by
which students of different backgrounds learn to
communicate more effectively with one another
while learning to feel good about themselves
This is a fairly limited approach, and does not
include attention to curriculum expansion and
empowerment.
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64
Single-group Studies
Instruction that focuses on the experiences and
cultures of one specific group
African-American History, Chicano Literature,
and Native American Culture are some
examples.
While important, such efforts may tend to
reinforce a single perspective, while paying less
attention to multiple perspectives.
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65
Inclusive Multicultural Education
Places multicultural education in the larger
context of overall curriculum and school reform
Focuses on the strength and value of diversity in
a pluralistic nation
Expanded attention to the differences in gender,
religion, geographical region, and disability
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66
Education That Is Multicultural
and Social Reconstructionist
This approach goes beyond multicultural
education by helping students critically analyze
the larger social forces involved in discrimination
and oppression.
Believes that the entire education program
should be designed to address the needs of
diverse groups regardless of race, ethnicity,
culture, religion, exceptionality, or gender
Seeks to prepare students not only to think in
multiple ways, but to be willing and able to help
bring about social justice in the society
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67
Something to Think About
The history of multicultural education has its
roots in a debate between those who think that
American schooling should provide a common
education to all children based on the history
and culture of European Americans and Western
civilization; and those who think that American
schooling must recognize and affirm the rich
historical and cultural backgrounds and
perspectives of a population that has always
been diverse and is becoming ever more so.
The debate continues.
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68
Culture and the Culture
Learning Process
Chapter 3
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69
Defining Culture
Culture is socially constructed.
Culture is shared by its members.
Culture is both objective and subjective.
Culture may be defined by geography, ethnicity,
language, religion, history, or other important
social characteristics.
Culture is socially transmitted.
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70
Culture in Everyday Use
Terms commonly used to describe social groups
that share important cultural elements are:
–
–
–
–
–
Subculture
Microculture
Ethnic group
Minority group
People of color
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71
Subculture
Subcultures share
characteristics that
distinguish them from
the larger society in
which they are
embedded; these
characteristics may
be a set of ideas and
practices or some
demographic
similarity.
Some examples of
subcultures are:
–
–
–
–
–
Corporate culture
Adolescent culture
Drug culture
Culture of poverty
Academic culture
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72
Microculture
Microcultures also
share distinguishing
characteristics, but tend
to be more closely
linked to the larger
society, often serving in
mediating roles; they
often interpret and
transmit the ideas,
values, and institutions
of the larger political
community.
Some examples of
microcultures are:
–
–
–
–
The family
The workplace
The classroom
The school
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73
Minority Group
Members of minority
groups occupy a
subordinate position
in a society; they may
be separated from the
dominant society by
disapproval and
discrimination.
Some examples of
minority groups in the
United States are:
–
–
–
–
Racial minorities
Women
People with disabilities
Language minorities
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74
Ethnic Group
Members of ethnic
groups share
common heritage,
history, celebrations
and traditions, similar
foods; and might
speak a common
language other than
English. Loyalty to
one’s ethnic identity
can be very powerful.
Some examples of
ethnic groups are:
–
–
–
–
Irish American
Native American
Lebanese American
African American
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75
People of Color
This term refers to
members of nonwhite minority groups;
it is often preferred to
the term “minority
group,” but does not
clearly identify
specific loyalties.
For example, native
Spanish-speakers
may identify
themselves as
“Hispanic people of
color,” but their
cultural identity may
be Puerto Rican,
Mexican, or
Salvadoran.
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76
Culture Solves Common Human
Problems
Means of communication—language
Determination of power—status
Regulation of reproduction—family
Systems of rules—government
Relationship to nature—magic, myth, religion,
science
Conception of time—temporality
Significant lessons—history
Cultural representations—music, story,
dance, art
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77
Humans Construct Culture
Culture is one factor that determines the kinds of
guidelines to which an individual is exposed.
The concept of culture usually refers to things,
both physical and mental, that are made or
constructed by human beings, rather than to
things that naturally occur in the environment.
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78
Culture is Shared
Culture is socially constructed by human beings
in interaction with one another.
Cultural ideas and understandings are shared by
a group of people who recognize the knowledge,
attitudes, and values of one another.
cont.
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79
Moreover, human beings agree on which
cultural elements are better than others,
arranging these in a hierarchy of value, which
can also change over time.
In nearly all instances, shared cultural
identification is transmitted from one generation
to the next.
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80
Culture Is Both Objective and
Subjective
Objective culture
–
–
–
–
–
Physical artifacts
Language
Clothing
Food
Decorative objects
Subjective culture
–
–
–
–
–
Attitudes
Values
Norms of behavior
Social roles
Meaning of objective
cultural elements
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81
Two Ways to Understand
Culture
Culture-Specific
Approaches:
Helps to understand a
particular cultural
group, for example,
Native Americans
A problem with this
approach is that it
does not account for
in-group differences
Culture-General
Approaches:
Helps to understand
how culture “works” in
people’s lives; a
universal perspective
Suggests questions to
ask of any culture
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The Culture-Learning Process
Sources of Cultural Knowledge and Identity
– Individuals in complex societies like the United States
tend to identify themselves as belonging to various
cultural and social groups, depending on their
personal biographies.
– There are twelve major sources of cultural identity
that influence teaching and learning.
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83
Sources of Cultural Identity
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84
Cultural Knowledge Is Transmitted
by People and Experiences
We gain the knowledge that contributes to our
cultural identities through interaction with various
socializing agents.
These agents mediate our cultural knowledge in
particular ways.
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85
Important Socializing Agents
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How We Learn Culture:
Socialization
Three stages of socialization
Primary socialization—of infants and young
children by the family and early caregivers
Secondary socialization—in childhood and
adolescence, by the school, the religious
affiliation, the peer group, the neighborhood, and
the media
Adult socialization—the workplace, travel, and
assuming new roles in life
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Some Results of Socialization
Because the process of socialization is intended
to cause individuals to internalize knowledge,
attitudes, values, and beliefs, it has several
results which should not be surprising, as
follows:
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Ethnocentrism
The tendency people have to evaluate others
according to their own standards and experience
While this tendency can help bind people
together, it can also become a serious obstacle
when those who have internalized different
ideas and behaviors begin to interact with one
another.
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89
Perception
Stimuli received by our senses would overwhelm
us if it weren’t somehow reduced; thus,
What we perceive—what we see, hear, feel,
taste, and smell—is shaped in part by our
culture.
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Categorization
Categorization is the
cognitive process by
which all human
beings simplify their
world by grouping
similar stimuli.
Our categories give
meaning to our
perceptions.
A prototype image
best characterizes the
meaning of a
category.
Example: for the
category “bird,” we
usually think of
robins, not chickens.
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Stereotypes
Stereotypes are socially constructed categories
of people.
They usually obscure differences within groups.
They are frequently negative and play to
ethnocentric ideas of “the other.”
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Some Limits on Socialization
While socialization is a powerful process, it does
have limits.
– It is limited by a child’s physical limits.
– It is limited because it is never finished, and thus
never absolute; it can be changed.
– It is limited because human beings are not just
passive recipients but also actors in their
environments.
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Understanding Cultural
Differences
In a complex, pluralistic society like the United
States, all people are in some ways multicultural.
While we all draw on common sources of
knowledge, we are socialized by different
agents, with different perspectives on that
knowledge.
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94
The Culture-Learning Process
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95
Variations in Cultural
Environments
Although the sources of cultural identity are the
same in all societies, the content in those
sources may be different.
Moreover, each community varies considerably
in the number and character of its socializing
agents.
cont.
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Given this complexity, it is wise to consider the
possible cultural elements in our own lives and
in the lives of others.
Despite this potential for variation among
individuals and within groups, there are
similarities or generalizations that can be made
about individuals who identify with particular
groups.
cont.
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What is needed is a more sophisticated way of
looking at diversity.
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Such an approach to diversity
involves several elements:
Questioning the “dominant model,” or the
prototype image
Questioning stereotypes
Looking for commonalities among our
differences
Thinking of differences as resources to learn
from
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Something to Think About
“By ignoring the cultural and social forms that
are authorized by youth and simultaneously
empower and disempower them, educators risk
complicity in silencing and negating their
students. This is unwittingly accomplished by
refusing to recognize the importance of those
sites and social practices outside of schools that
actively shape student experiences and through
which students often define and construct their
sense of identity, politics, and culture.”
—Giroux and Simon
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Classrooms and Schools
as Cultural Crossroads
Chapter 4
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Schools and Classrooms:
Where Cultures Interact
In schools, as perhaps nowhere else in
American society, people of many different
backgrounds are forced to come together for
significant periods of time.
When they arrive, they find a culture of the
school itself that may be very different from their
own familiar cultural milieux.
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Facets of School Culture
Student culture
Teacher culture
Parent culture
School culture
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Student Culture: Diverse in
Many Ways
The bases for association and identity:
–
–
–
–
Cultural: ethnicity, race, gender, class
Academic: biology club, French club
Interest or Skill: choir, band, football
Social: cliques, gangs
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Teacher Culture: Predominantly
Homogenous
70 percent female
Historically, working and middle class
Relatively low status in the adult social system of
the school
90 percent European American
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Parent Culture
Socioeconomic status of family
First language of family
Family organization
Immigrant or refugee status of families
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Culture of the School as a
Whole
“Cultural bound,” and the culture to which most
are bound is the dominant culture of European
American
Overwhelmingly middle class in values
Its purpose is to transmit the cultural beliefs,
values, and knowledge affiliated with the
dominant society
Interested in social control
Often sees diversity as a problem, not a
resource
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Teachers as Cultural Mediators
A new role for teachers: mediating cultural
similarities and differences
– Be knowledgeable about the role of culture in
teaching and learning.
– Be skillful in addressing the educational needs of
diverse students.
– Be prepared to engage students in content and
activities that enable them to handle intercultural
interactions with others.
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Reshaping Cultural Identity
Given the diversity of today’s schools, teachers
need to adjust to a new reality.
There are predictable patterns in such
adjustment.
One such pattern is the U-curve hypothesis.
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Diagram of the U-Curve
Hypothesis
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The U-Curve Hypothesis
Honeymoon:
– Excitement at dealing
with new people;
preconceived notions
– If frustrations are
conquered,
understanding begins
and one can laugh at
one’s mistakes
Hostility:
– Frustration when
preconceived notions
do not produce
desired results
Humor:
Home:
– One’s own cultural
identity has been
altered; one feels “at
home”
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Reshaping Identity Takes Time
It may be as long as two years; if a new
language is involved, it may take up to seven.
It is difficult, though not at all impossible, to alter
deeply held beliefs about others.
If we are to take full advantage of our diverse
people, both teachers and students need to
think seriously about reshaping our own cultural
identities.
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Acculturation and Identity
Acculturation refers to the changes that take
place as a result of continuous firsthand contact
between individuals of different cultures.
The degree of mobility and the degree of choice
in acculturating groups are both important.
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High Degree of Mobility
Immigrants or Sojourners: those with a high
degree of mobility who voluntarily make contact
with new cultural groups
Refugees: those with a high degree of mobility
but little or no choice in making contact with new
cultural groups
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Low Degree of Mobility
Ethnic Groups: those with a low degree of
mobility but a high degree of voluntary contact
with others
Indigenous People: those with a low degree of
mobility and a low degree of voluntary contact
with others
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115
Themes from Cross-Cultural
Psychology
People tend to communicate their cultural
identity to others in the broadest terms possible.
Because we are all multicultural, our cultural
identity is dynamic and always changing.
Although culture is complex and variable, it is
nevertheless patterned.
cont.
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Interactions with other cultures can be viewed as
a resource for understanding.
Behavior should be judged in relation to its
context.
Persons holding a multicultural perspective
continually strive to find common ground
between individuals.
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A Model of Cross-Cultural
Interaction
Designed to be universal…adaptable to any
cross-cultural encounter
Recognizes that people have similar reactions to
cross-cultural encounters
Builds on a desire to analyze, understand, and
improve intercultural interactions
cont.
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Captures the experience of cultural differences
from a variety of perspectives:
– Emotional
– Informational
– Developmental
Does not prescribe specific courses of action
Relies on the individual, empowered by culturegeneral knowledge, to inquire into causes of
problems and propose solutions
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Stages in Cross-Cultural
Interaction
Stage 1: Understanding Emotional Responses in
Intercultural Interaction
Stage 2: Understanding the Cultural Basis of
Unfamiliar Behavior
Stage 3: Making Adjustments and Reshaping
Cultural Identity
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Stage 1: Understanding
Emotional Responses
Anxiety—about appropriate behavior
Ambiguity—messages may be unclear
Disconfirmed Expectations—what we think will
happen doesn’t
Belonging/Rejection—we don’t know the “rules”
Confronting Personal Prejudices—we may find
that our previously held beliefs are inaccurate
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Stage 2: Understanding the Cultural
Basis of Unfamiliar Behavior
Communication and Language Use:
understanding verbal and nonverbal, facial
expressions, gestures
Values: deeply held, they may be quite different
Rituals and Superstitions: may be viewed as
“silly” to one group or another
Situational Behavior: the “rules” of behavior may
vary in the same situation
cont.
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Roles: knowledge of appropriate role behavior
may also vary across culture groups
Social Status: markers of high and low status
with respect to roles may vary
Time and Space: differences in conceptions of
time and space may vary, as well as differences
in appropriate behavior regarding time (e.g.
punctuality)
Relationship of the Group to the Individual: the
importance of the individual and/or the group
may be different across culture groups.
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Stage 3: Making Adjustments
and Reshaping Cultural Identity
Changes and adjustments may occur in the
following:
– Categorization—the content and value of our
categories
– Differentiation—as we become more sophisticated,
meaning is associated with more refined categories
– Ingroups and Outgroups—redefining who’s “in” and
who’s “out” in meaningful ways
– Learning Style—adjustments and expansions in our
ability to learn effectively
– Attribution—broadening the basis on which we
understand the behavior of others
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Applying the Culture-General
Model
Allows people to build a common culture-related
vocabulary around differences
Provides a tool to more accurately assess the
nature of intercultural interactions
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Identifying Commonalities
The goal of the culture-general model goes
beyond simply negotiating differences.
It is intended to help individuals search for
commonalities, to build bridges to one another,
so that all may feel sufficiently comfortable, and
so that they can confront differences with
equanimity.
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Identifying Differences
Equally important to identifying differences
between groups is the ability to identify
differences within groups.
Such variations as social class, geographical
location, sexual orientation, or religion are not
easy to “see,” but may be important in the way
individuals perceive the world and approach
learning.
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Something to Think About
“It is often hard to learn from people who are just
like you. Too much is taken for granted.
Homogeneity is fine in a bottle of milk, but in the
classroom it diminishes the curiosity that ignites
discovery.”
—Vivian Gyssin Paley
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Creating Classrooms
that Address Race and
Ethnicity
Chapter 6
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Lay versus Scientific Understanding
of Race and Ethnicity
Pedagogies: Old and New
– Teachers do not shy away from the deep-seated
influence that race plays in people’s lives.
– Teachers understand the historical significance of
race.
– Teachers are aware that majority children may not
understand the role race plays in their lives.
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Roles: Old and New
– Teachers understand their roles as active agents of
change.
– Teachers reach out to individuals and community
groups that represent various ethnic and racial
groups.
– Students interact with community groups working to
change the status quo.
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Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New
– History of diversity in the United States a critical
element
– Concept of “race” often used incorrectly
Genotype—shared genetic material
Phenotype—visible traits (e.g., skin color)
– Textbooks often inaccurate and dated
– Content materials often biased (intentionally or
unintentionally)
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Assessment: Old and New
– Assessment instruments may be developed and
normed with only one race or ethnic group in mind.
– Assessments should consider the sociocultural
context of the learner.
Biases and stereotypes
Prior experience of the learner
– Assessments should be varied.
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Understanding Prejudice and
Racism
Ethnocentrism leads people to believe that their
own “ways” are good and “natural.”
Prejudice implies a lack of thought or care in
making a judgment with prejudicial responses
being quick, narrow in scope, and based
oftentimes on negative emotions rather than
accurate information.
While racial and ethnic prejudice can be
expressed both positively and negatively, in the
United States it is most often negative.
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The Functions of Prejudice
Adjustment Function—prejudicial attitudes may
help one adjust to a complex world
Ego-Defensive Function—prejudicial attitudes
may protect one’s self-concept
Value-Expressive Function—prejudicial attitudes
may help demonstrate one’s own self-concept to
others
Knowledge Function—prejudicial attitudes may
reinforce the stereotypical knowledge of one’s
ingroup
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Prejudice Formation: The
Components of Prejudice
The cognitive component refers to the process
of categorization.
The affective component refers to the feelings
that accompany a person’s thoughts about
members of a particular group.
The behavioral component refers to the
discriminatory behavior that people who harbor
prejudices direct toward others.
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How Children Learn Prejudice
Observation and passive learning from
respected elders
Membership in a group that excludes others
The media, when it reinforces stereotypes
Religious fundamentalism that emphasizes
exclusive rights to “the truth”
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Extreme Cases of Prejudice
Racism—the transformation of prejudicial
attitudes through the use of power directed
toward those one regards as inferior
Hate Groups—any organized body that
denigrates select groups of people based on
ethnicity, race, religion, or sexual orientation; or
that advocates the use of violence against such
groups or their members for purposes of
scapegoating
cont.
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White Privilege—the largely unconscious
acceptance by dominant groups of privileges
denied to oppressed groups
Racial Profiling—law enforcement practices
aimed at those who “fit” a particular profile—
usually age, ethnicity, and/or race
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Curriculum Transformation:
Strategies for Prejudice Reduction
Critical to reducing prejudice and establishing an
interculturally sensitive classroom is the
teacher’s understanding of, and ability to
integrate, intercultural awareness and prejudice
reduction activities into the curriculum.
Intercultural sensitivity is not “natural”—crosscultural contact has historically been
accompanied by bloodshed, oppression, or
genocide.
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Educational Strategies to
Reduce Prejudice
Improving social contact and intergroup relations
– Equal Status Contact: When those who are brought
together perceive they are of equal status
– Superordinate Goals: When the purpose of bringing
people together cannot be accomplished without the
participation of all
cont.
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– Encouragement of Intergroup Interaction: All involved
in a school must actively encourage and support
efforts of teachers and students to experiment with
curricular and other innovations to improve the school
involvement with differences.
– Personal Familiarity: People must have the
opportunity to get to know the “other” person in ways
that render the stereotypic image clearly inaccurate or
inappropriate.
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Some Cautions in Applying the
Contact Hypothesis
Many schools are monocultural, providing little
opportunity for intergroup contact to occur; in
such cases it is best to stress the diversity that is
present (e.g., socioeconomic or gender).
Equal status contact within the school may
conflict with that which occurs outside the
school.
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Increasing Cognitive
Sophistication
Improving students’ critical thinking skills
– Questioning
– Analyzing
– Suspending judgment until all available information is
collected and studied
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Improving Self-Confidence and
Self-Acceptance
A sense of self-worth and self-confidence
supports the reduction of prejudice.
– Students feel secure and accepted.
– Student participation is valued.
– Students know the boundaries and limits of behavior.
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Increasing Empathy for and
Understanding of Others
Long-term gains in prejudice reduction require
educational activity that actively engages the
emotions
– Writing stories or acting out dramatizations of crosscultural situations
– Any activity that enables students to “step into the
shoes” of another
– Classroom simulations that generate “culture shock”
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146
Comprehensive Programs That
Improve Intergroup Relations
Anti-Bias Education for Young Children—a
curriculum published by the National Association
for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
Cooperative Learning—helping children work
together in pursuit of the common goal of
achieving the objectives of the lesson at hand
A World of Difference—a curriculum developed
by the Anti-Defamation League to address
issues of prejudice and racism
Facing History and Ourselves—focus on the
history of Nazi Germany and the Holocaust
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147
Something to Think About
“…let’s think about the consequences of silence.
I think about Hitler. He got into power because
people around him were silent and didn’t
challenge him. When you are silent, you are
giving tacit approval of the messages you hear
around you… Your simple comments can go
quite far at making change.”
—John Gray
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148
Developing Learning
Communities
Language and Learning Style
Chapter 8
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149
Characteristics of a Learning
Community
It is organized for activity.
Everyone in the school participates in this
activity-oriented environment.
There is a sense that everyone belongs to the
community: students, teachers, parents,
administrators, support staff, volunteers, and
other members of the broader community
outside of the school.
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Rationale for
Learning-Community Classrooms
Need to prepare students to be citizens of a
democracy. . .
– Through learning to negotiate differences in the
context of a common curriculum
– Through learning citizenship by practicing democracy
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Pedagogies: Old and New
Old methods with new names:
– Dialogue (Plato)
– Discovery learning (Abelard)
– Critical pedagogy, inquiry learning, feminist
pedagogy, and collaborative learning (Comenius)
What is new:
– That these should exist at the same time and be used
by both children and adults
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Roles: Old and New
Traditional roles of students and adults are
expanded:
– Teacher as “teller” expanded to teacher as guide,
coach, cheerleader
– Other adults assume teaching and learning roles
– Students may be “teachers” as well as learners
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Place of Content Knowledge:
Old and New
Disciplinary knowledge serves a dual role:
– Sometimes it is learned as an end in itself
– Sometimes it serves as a means to another end
(e.g., problem solving or discovering a new way to
see and understand the world)
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Assessment: Old and New
There is still a use for paper-and-pencil testing,
standardized or teacher-written.
General use for such tests is diagnostic.
Alternative forms of assessment also play a part:
–
–
–
–
Peer evaluation
Portfolios
Group tests
Self-evaluation
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155
Perspectives on
Language Acquisition
Language is what makes us human, and is the
primary means for socializing us into our families
and social groups; and through them, for
acquiring a cultural identity.
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The Family Is the First
Institution
Introduces us to
language
Language objectifies,
interprets, and justifies
reality for the child, thus
structuring the child’s
environment.
Gives labels to roles,
such as Mommy,
teacher, and priest,
extending roles into the
wider community
Language brings the
meanings and values of
the wider community
onto the small state of
the immediate family.
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Institutional Aspects of
Language in the Family
Language has several characteristics in
common with other social institutions.
–
–
–
–
It is external.
It is objective.
It has the power of moral authority.
It is historical.
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Perspectives on Language
Variation
All language sounds have symbolic meaning.
Within any language, however, the meaning of
elements may differ widely:
–
–
–
–
Vocabulary
Pronunciation
Syntax (grammatical structure)
Semantics (the meaning of words)
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Verbal Communication
Accents: differ from standard language only in
pronunciation
Dialects: differ from standard language in
pronunciation, word usage, and syntax
– Black English (Ebonics)
– Rural, or mountain, English
– Standard English
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Black English (Ebonics, African American
Language [AAL])
– Spoken primarily (though not exclusively) by urban
African Americans
– Derived in part from the languages of West Africa
– The ability to code switch (move back and forth from
Ebonics to standard English) is often a matter of
social class.
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Rural (or Mountain) English
– Spoken primarily in Appalachia
– Derived from the language of early English settlers in
the area
– May be the “purest” English spoken in the United
States
– Has been preserved, in part, because of isolation of
mountain people
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Standard English
– Is also a dialect of English, although it is the dialect
usually deemed most “correct”
– Is the language of education, commerce, and the arts
– May vary from community to community, and from
country to country
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Bidialectalism: the ability to speak two (or more)
dialects and to switch easily between or among
them
Sign Language: a form of nonverbal language of
signs spoken by the deaf
– Used instead of a spoken language
– American Sign Language (ASL) is considered an
“official” language
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Nonverbal Communication
Used by both hearing and hearing-impaired
individuals
Accounts for 50 to 90 percent of the messages
we send and receive
It has several functions:
–
–
–
–
Conveys messages
Can augment verbal communication
Can contradict verbal communication
Can replace verbal communication
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Three aspects of nonverbal
communication:
Proxemics: sometimes called “social space”;
refers to the “normal” distance considered
appropriate between two people speaking
Kinesics: body language (e.g., gestures, facial
expressions, eye contact)
Paralanguage: vocalizations that are not words
(e.g., sighs, laughter, crying)
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166
Culture, Language, and
Learning Style
These three are inextricably intertwined.
– Language shapes and is shaped by culture.
– Culture shapes and is shaped by language.
– Learning style originates and accounts for variations
in patterns of learning, and is shaped by both
language and culture.
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Components of Learning Style
Field Dependence: individual perceives globally
or holistically; orientation is social; is good at
observation
Field Independence: individual perceives
discrete parts; is good at abstract thought; tends
to be individualistic; prefers working alone
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Additional Components of
Learning Style
Preferred sensory mode for learning (e.g., sight,
sound, smell, touch, taste, movement)
Response to immediate environment
Emotionality
Social preferences
Cognitive-psychological orientation
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Multiple Intelligences
The idea, based on brain research and
proposed by Howard Gardner, that human
beings not only have preferred learning styles,
but also preferred ways of expressing
intellectual ability, and thus, of thinking
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Seven kinds of intelligence:
Visual/Spatial
Verbal/Linguistic
Logical/Mathematical
Bodily/Kinesthetic
Musical/Rhythmic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
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Origins of Learning Style
Still a matter of conjecture
Appear to be a combination of:
– Biological factors
– Psychological factors
– Sociocultural factors
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Relation of Language to Culture
Language determines vocabulary, which sets
the “right” meaning of words and of cultural
ideas.
Language plays a critical role in the
maintenance of subgroups within a larger
culture.
Language reflects the thought processes of a
culture.
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173
Relation of Learning Style to
Culture
Learning style is developed in the context of
what we attend to (perception) and how we
attend to it—both culturally shaped adaptations
to the physical and social environment.
Thus, particular learning styles are often
associated with particular cultural groups.
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174
The Significance of Multiple
Intelligences and Learning Styles
The importance of these qualities for teachers
lies in their ability to identify preferred modes of
learning and to adapt instruction so that all
students get to practice learning in multiple
ways.
No one recommends that students learn only in
their preferred mode or that teachers teach in
more than one mode.
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175
Perspectives on Bilingual Education
and Second Language Acquisition
With increasing immigration to the US in recent
decades, schools are being faced with
challenges of large numbers of children for
whom English is not their first language.
There are more than 9,000,000 LEP students
enrolled in schools today (US Census 2000);
one out of every six children speak a language
other than English at home.
The terminology has changed. Children whose
first language is not English are most often
called English Language Learners or ELLs.
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176
Ethical Issues
Students who speak a dialect of English, or
whose first language is not English, are likely to
be stigmatized.
Debates about language in the schools are likely
to be as much about issues of cultural
domination as they are about language itself.
The assessment of students with limited English
proficiency must be done with care.
Without diverse languages, diverse cultures may
also disappear.
cont.
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177
The increasing prevalence of English in
worldwide modes of communication—especially
television and the Internet—may mean that
many languages are disappearing.
Some balance needs to be achieved between
protecting “small” languages and encouraging
international exchange.
The negative American attitude toward learning
more than one language may get in the way of
our own international understanding.
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178
Something to Think About
“When we study human language, we are
approaching what some might call the ‘human
essence,’ the distinctive qualities of mind that
are, so far as we know, unique to man and that
are inseparable from any critical phase of
human existence, personal or social.”
—Noam Chomsky
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179
Religious Pluralism in
Secular Classrooms
Chapter 9
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180
Rationale for Attending to
Religion in Public Schools
Americans have always been concerned with
the role of religion in matters of state.
Early colonists came to escape religious
persecution; later immigrants have brought a
variety of religious beliefs, rituals, and habits of
mind.
Much of the cultural capital of the United States
has emerged from attempts to answer basically
religious questions.
cont.
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181
Connections to religious ideas and symbols
emerges, in part, from a universal human need
for a spiritual dimension.
While religion in some societies permeates the
whole culture, in the United States the founders
were concerned that religion be separated from
the state in concrete ways.
cont.
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182
The Constitutional language of the First
Amendment tries to guarantee that separation:
“Congress shall make no law respecting an
establishment of religion, [establishment clause]
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof
[prohibition clause]…”
These two clauses have created a field on which
battles of interpretation have been fought for 225
years.
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183
Definitions of Religion
Universal Definitions:
– “a system of beliefs and practices by means of which
a group of people struggle with…the ultimate
problems of human life” (Yinger)
– “…a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to
sacred things…beliefs and practices which unite into
some single moral community…” (Durkheim)
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184
Sectarian Definitions:
– Define and describe particular religious
denominations in terms of:
Theological point of view
Religious practices
Religious experience
Knowledge of scriptures and traditions
Consequences for daily life
Consequences for “falling away” from the faith
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185
Changes in the United States
Over Time
The degree to which religious belief has been
deemed necessary to public life has changed.
Technology, especially television, has enabled
people to have knowledge of religion without
actually attending services.
The increasing interdependence of the world’s
social systems means that one religious system
can have an enormous impact on other religious
systems, and, indeed, on daily life around the
world.
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186
Religious Pluralism in the
United States
Prior to Colonization: a wide variety of religious
beliefs and practices by native peoples
– The centrality of a Creator
– A reverence for the natural world
– A belief that human beings were obligated to preserve
and protect the natural world
Religion in the Colonial Era:
– Christianity and Judaism
Historically western and European
A belief that human beings were destined to “rule over” the
natural world
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187
Dominance of different religious sects in different
parts of the colonies:
– New England: a Puritan Protestantism
– The Middle Colonies: greater diversity, including
Catholic, Quaker, and Anabaptist—no particular
denomination prevailed
– The South: largely modeled on the Anglican Church
of England
– Jews were also among the earliest immigrants, and
were spread over the colonies.
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188
17th through the 19th Centuries:
– African nativist religious ideas were brought to the
colonies by captured slaves
– Combined with and enriched the primarily Protestant
Christian traditions; after slavery was finally
abolished, African-American churches grew stronger
and had an immense influence on the cultural and
educational lives of its members, which continues
today.
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189
19th and 20th Centuries:
– Introduction of Islam to the United States
– The Muslim faith is currently one of the fastest
growing religions in the United States.
Membership is in part African American (e.g., the Nation of
Islam).
Members are also immigrants from Middle Eastern countries
(e.g., Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria), from both North and subSaharan Africa, and from Malaysia.
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190
Characteristics of a Classroom
That Attends to Religious Pluralism
Pedagogies: Old and New
– Teachers should know the backgrounds of their
students and their students’ families.
– Teachers should know something about the
worldview of particular religions represented in their
classes.
– Teachers should adapt instruction, as required, to
give all students the chance to learn effectively and to
practice learning in different ways.
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191
Roles: Old and New
– Because of potential conflict, teachers need to
assume a role as interpreter and, sometimes,
mediator.
– School rules and customs such as dress codes may
have to be amended for those from different religious
backgrounds.
– The school calendar may also have to take a variety
of religious holidays into account.
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192
Place of Content Knowledge: Old and New
– While schools have tried to cope with religious
controversy by trying to avoid it, religious history, as
well as religious architecture, art, music, and ideas
can become the basis for an enriched and affirming
classroom.
– Remember that the Supreme Court has not, in any of
its decisions on the subject, prohibited discussions
about religion in schools, as follows:
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—from the decision by
Justice Clark:
193
“…it might well be said that one’s education is
not complete without a study of comparative
religion or the history of religion and its
relationship to the advancement of civilization. It
certainly may be said that the Bible is worthy of
study for its literary and historic qualities.
Nothing we have said here indicates that such
study of the Bible or of religion, when presented
objectively as part of a secular program of
education, may not be effected consistent with
the First Amendment.”
—Abington v. Schempp (1963)
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194
Examples of Religious Content:
Dietary regulations in health or home economics
classes
Islamic geometrical designs in math classes
Major works of art depicting religious themes in
art classes
Religious music in music classes
Studies of comparative religion in history or
social studies classes
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195
Assessment: Old and New
Use sensitivity when creating exam questions on
subjects related to religion (e.g., on evolution).
Use sensitivity when deciding upon the use of
psychological testing (some families believe
these are a corruption of family values).
Use sensitivity when deciding about the use of
various health screening techniques, especially
invasive ones.
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196
Perspectives on Religion and
Schooling in the United States
Constitutional language in the First and
Fourteenth Amendments has been both the
source of religious freedom and the source of
educational battles.
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197
Sources of tension include:
The need for schools, as an arm of the state, to
support a basic freedom guaranteed by the
Constitution
The need for schools, also as an arm of the
state, to uphold the separation of church and
state
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198
Two Broad Categories of
Debate (R. Freeman Butts)
Education’s role in protecting private freedoms:
– “those that inhere in the individual, and therefore may
not be invaded or denied by the state.”
Education’s role in guaranteeing public
freedoms:
– “…those that inhere in the welfare of the democratic
political community…”
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199
Private Freedoms and Some
Relevant Court Cases
Education has a role to play in protecting private
freedoms, or “those that inhere in the individual,
and therefore may not be invaded or denied by
the state.”
Among these are compulsory attendance and
the individual practice of religious beliefs in
classrooms, including prayer.
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200
Compulsory Attendance
– Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925): children must go
to school, but private religious schools satisfy that
requirement
– Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972): the so-called “Amish
exception”: Old Order Amish can disobey Wisconsin’s
compulsory schooling law and withdraw their children
after the eighth grade
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201
The Practice of Religious Beliefs in Classrooms
– Meyer v. Nebraska (1923): the right of parents to
guide their children’s education is affirmed
– West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnett
(1943): no one can be forced to salute the flag or say
the Pledge of Allegiance if it violates individual
conscience
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202
School Prayer
– Abington v. Schempp (1963): requiring student
participation in sectarian prayers and reading from the
Bible, particularly the New Testament, is
unconstitutional
– Lee v. Weisman (1992): sectarian prayers at high
school graduations are unconstitutional
– Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe (2000):
sectarian prayers at high school football games are
unconstitutional
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203
Public Freedoms and Some
Relevant Court Cases
Education also has a role to play in protecting
public freedoms, such as the need of the nation
for an educated citizenry and the need of the
society for the socialization of its children in
moral and ethical behavior.
Issues raised here include public funding for
private religious schools and the provision of
religious instruction.
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204
Public Funding for Religious Schools
– Cochran v. Louisiana Board of Education (1930): use
of public funds to purchase textbooks for private
schools is constitutional
– Everson v. Board of Education (1947): use of public
funds to bus students to religious schools is
constitutional
– The National Defense Education Act (1958) and the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965)
provided funds for some aspects of private religious
schooling
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205
The Provision of Religious Instruction
– McCollum v. Board of Education (1948): religious
instruction in public schools is unconstitutional
– Zorach v. Clausen (1952): religious instruction during
school hours is constitutional if it takes place off
school grounds
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206
Alternatives to Public Schooling,
Often Based on Religious Views
Charter Schools—public schools funded by the
state but run by local councils; funding is taken
away from public schools
Home Schooling—parent-taught education,
often using commercially prepared curricula and
lessons
Voucher Programs—funding (vouchers)
attached to the child for use in private, often
religious schools, as alternatives to the child’s
public school
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207
Other Important Court Decisions
Epperson v. State of Arkansas (1968): statutes
criminalizing the teaching of evolution are
unconstitutional
Lemon v. Kurzman (1971): Court outlines a
three-pronged test for deciding whether any
state statute violates the establishment clause of
the First Amendment, as follows:
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208
Lemon’s “Three-Pronged Test”
– Does the challenged practice or policy have a secular
purpose?
– Does it have the effect of neither advancing nor
inhibiting religious practices?
– Does the practice or policy avoid an excessive
entanglement between government and religion?
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209
Perspectives on Religious
Identity
Religious identity has its roots in the family.
It is perhaps the most common and also perhaps
the strongest source of identity.
Religious identity places an individual in a
particular relationship with a deity.
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210
The Influence of the
“Religious Right”
While the so-called “religious right” is a
contemporary conservative political movement
of Protestant Christians, it is not the only
conservative religious movement.
Fundamentalist movements are prevalent in all
major religions around the world.
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211
Particular educational interests of fundamentalist
movements:
–
–
–
–
–
Prayer in schools
Curriculum content
Teaching of morality and “character”
Funding for private and parochial schools
Censorship of books available to or required of
students
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212
Ethical Issues
Responsibility of teachers to be aware of and
understand the religious background of their
students
Responsibility of teachers to know the law with
respect to religious issues
Responsibility of teachers to be sensitive to
students’ religious beliefs with respect to
curriculum content, religious dress, religious
holidays, and methods of instruction
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213
Something to Think About
The principle of separation of church and state
has not prevented many people from believing
that schools should be a repository of morality;
the question has always been, “Whose morality
are we talking about?”
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214
Developing a
Collaborative Classroom
Gender and Sexual Orientation
Chapter 10
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215
Rationale for Collaborative
Teaching and Learning
An interdependent world requires that we learn
to live cooperatively.
Competition for natural resources is
counterproductive.
Thirty years of research demonstrates that girls
(and probably boys) learn more effectively when
cooperation is the norm.
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216
Characteristics of a
Collaborative Classroom
Both competitive and collaborative approaches
are present.
Teachers, students, other school personnel,
parents, and members of the community work
together to plan and implement instructional
goals.
Lessons are integrated.
Interest in home-school collaboration is high;
parents are viewed as “first teachers.”
Students cooperate with one another in planning
their activities.
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217
Pedagogies: Old and New
Collaborative work in schools is not new: think
about teams, choirs, plays.
In collaborative classrooms, this kind of work is
applied to the formal curriculum.
In collaborative classrooms, the instructional
mode is cooperative learning.
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218
The Effectiveness of Cooperative
Learning: Two Factors
Goals cannot be accomplished unless each
member of the group does his or her part (task
specialization).
The group’s success depends on each individual
learning the required material; the group sinks or
swims together (positive goal interdependence).
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219
Secondary Characteristics of
Cooperative Learning
Emphasis on face-to-face interaction
Development of social skills
Group participation in reflection and analysis:
monitoring how well the group is doing
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220
Uses of Cooperative Learning
To teach specific content
To ensure active cognitive processing of
information
To provide long-term support for and assistance
in academic progress
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221
Roles: Old and New
The teacher often acts as a coach.
Students may serve as coaches as well.
Parents, grandparents, and other community
members often serve as instructors.
Adults and students use a partnership model of
teaching and learning.
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222
Place of Content Knowledge:
Old and New
Because teachers and students collaborate,
content is often interdisciplinary.
Learning (and teaching) serve a variety of
purposes.
Students are better able to make connections
between areas of knowledge.
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223
Assessment: Old and New
Assessment techniques should be compatible
with instructional strategies.
Assessment of collaborative work should
measure performance over time (e.g., with
portfolios or other demonstrations of both
individual and group problem-solving ability).
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224
Perspectives on Gender Identity
The development of one’s sense of identity—the
knowledge that one is separate from parents
and family—begins early.
A critical part of identity development, beginning
at least at birth, is gender.
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225
Sex and Gender Identity
Identification in terms of sex begins at about 18
months of age—“I am a girl,” “I am a boy.”
However, while sex is a biological characteristic,
gender is a social one—what it means to be a
boy or girl in any given society; what the rules
are.
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226
Gender Role Socialization
The rules associated with one’s gender role may
vary by race, ethnicity, social class, religion, and
even by geographical region.
The process of learning one’s gender role can
be described in three parts, as follows:
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227
The child learns to distinguish between men and
women, boys and girls, and to know what kinds
of behavior are characteristic of each;
The child learns to express appropriate gender
role preferences for himself or herself;
The child internalizes the “rules” and learns to
behave in accordance with gender role
standards.
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228
Gender Role Socialization in the
Middle Class
Parents:
– Boys handled more roughly, girls get more verbal
attention
– Boys given more freedom to explore; girls kept closer
to supervising parent
– Girls get more help in solving problems; boys told to
“figure it out”
– Parents’ approval of “appropriate” gender behavior
shapes the behavior of children
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229
Other Socializing Agents
Television
Children’s books
Children’s toys
Nursery rhymes, religious stories
Proverbs and sayings
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230
Masculine and Feminine
Behavior
It is also the case that this society favors the
active, the adventuresome, and the aggressive,
and that these traits are largely associated with
boys.
But boys pay a high price for this association.
cont.
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231
Boys are socialized much earlier to gender role
behavior than are girls.
Boys are also punished more harshly than girls
for deviation from norms of gender role.
Consider the relative meaning of the terms
“tomboy” and “sissy.” Which has a more
negative connotation? At what ages can these
terms commonly be applied?
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232
Perspectives on Gender and
Schooling
Schools as socializing agents
– Schools have an important socializing function for
middle-class norms.
– Among those norms are those for gender roles.
– While these norms are changing, sanctions still
operate when boys and girls move too far from the
norms for each.
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233
Gender Stereotypes in School
For boys: independent, strong, logical, direct,
adventurous, and aggressive
For girls: passive, weak, illogical, indirect, gentle,
and emotional
These traits, while they can be exhibited by
either sex, are genderized in favor of one or the
other.
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234
Social Factors That Enforce
Male and Female Stereotypes
Misogyny—the denigration or hatred of women
Homophobia—the fear of homosexuality and
homosexuals
In both cases, the assumption is that feminine
qualities are less valued, even contemptible.
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235
Some Further Definitions
Sex Role Stereotyping: when specific behaviors,
abilities, interests and values are attributed to
one sex or the other
Sex Bias: behavior that results from an
underlying belief in sex role stereotypes
Sex Discrimination: any action that denies
opportunities, privileges, or rewards on the basis
of sex
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236
Gender as an Issue of Legal
Equity in Schools
Title IX, Educational Amendments (1972)
“No person in the United States shall, on the
basis of sex, be excluded from participation in,
be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to
discrimination under any educational program or
activity receiving federal financial assistance.”
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237
Some Important Court Cases
Grove City v. Bell (1984)—Supreme Court
agrees that schools that do not receive direct
federal funds can be excluded from Title IX
Civil Rights Restoration Act (1988)—overrode
Bell; required all education institutions receiving
any federal funds (e.g., student loans) must
comply with Title IX
Numerous cases have been brought in lower
courts on the question of girls’ athletics; most
have affirmed Title IX.
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238
Other cases have been brought on issues of
sexual harassment; the results have been mixed
in adult-on-student cases:
– Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools (1992)—
petitioners may claim punitive damages under Title IX
when intent to evade compliance is established
– Gebser and Mccullough v. Lago Vista Independent
School District (1997)—denied compensatory
damages from both the teacher involved and the
school district
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239
The first successful student-on-student
harassment case was decided in 1995:
– Doe v. Petaluma Unified School District (1995)—
plaintiff was awarded punitive damages of $250,000
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240
Major Studies on Gender and
Schooling in the Last Decade
Mid-Atlantic Equity Center and NETWORK
Study (1993) found eight areas of concern
related to Title IX still to be addressed in order to
ensure equal educational opportunity for all
students, as follows:
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241
– Girls at risk of dropping out of school
– Gender bias in student–teacher interactions
– Participation and achievement of girls in math and
science
– Students enrolling and completing vocational
education courses historically nontraditional to
their sex
– Gender bias in standardized tests
– Gender differences in learning styles
– Teen pregnancy and parenting
– Sexual harassment of students by their peers
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242
American Association of University Women
(AAUW) Studies in the 1990s
– Studied self-esteem, educational opportunities, career
aspirations among boys and girls
– Studied incidence and impact of sexual harassment in
American schools, the impact of different educational
approaches on girls’ achievement, the influence of
school climate on adolescents, and single-sex
education for girls
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243
AAUW Studies: Findings
–
–
–
–
Lower self-esteem among girls
Differentiated educational experiences
Gendered career aspirations
Issues that tend to favor boys:
Academic achievement
Curricular materials
Learning environments
Sexuality education
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244
Where We Are Now
New interest in the education of boys as well as
girls
New issues of concern:
– Single-sex education (of both boys and girls),
particularly in math and science
– Use of technology
New interest in socialization of boys to gender
role, particularly with respect to violence,
decreasing academic achievement, increasing
numbers of boys on medication for hyperactivity
disorders
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245
Perspectives on Gender and
Sexuality
Sexual activity among teenagers is lower than
10 or 15 years ago, but is still very high.
The United States has the highest teenage
pregnancy rate in the industrialized world.
The likelihood of sexual activity increases with
age; more than half of seventeen-year-olds are
sexually active and close to 98 percent report
using some form of contraception.
cont.
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246
Among the most difficult problems facing
teachers and students is the relationship
between heterosexual and homosexual
students.
Public awareness about homophobia has
increased, due largely to gay and lesbian
activism and the tragedy of AIDS.
Some studies suggest that the more students
know about homosexuality, the less homophobic
they will be toward homosexual people.
cont.
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247
Yet, cognitive knowledge about homosexuality
often fails to neutralize deep-seated attitudes of
anger and guilt that accompany the issue.
Tolerance is also complicated by gender-related
issues involved:
– Hostility and violence are more often directed toward
gay men than toward lesbian women.
– Losing jobs or being evicted from housing is a more
common problem for lesbians.
cont.
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248
Differences in masculine and feminine traits
(and behavior) are perhaps as wide among
homosexuals as they are among heterosexuals,
which serves to complicate the issue still further.
The belief that gay men are “feminine” and
lesbians are “masculine” is as much a
stereotype as any other kind of stereotypic
categorization.
One of the most difficult aspects of
homosexuality in a homophobic society is the
separation of sex and gender.
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249
Teachers Can Decrease Levels
of Homophobia
By using gender-free terminology (e.g., partners
and persons) instead of husband, wife,
boyfriend, or girlfriend
By systematically interrupting homophobic
comments
By overtly using homophobic misinformation to
encourage critical thinking
By using educational materials that do not
assume that all students are heterosexual
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250
Ethical Issues
The degree to which all students are
encouraged to be open, reflective, and critical
thinkers
The degree to which open inquiry may place
students at odds with their families or the
community
The degree to which the role of the school is
seen as one which helps all students to
understand, appreciate, and negotiate
differences—of gender and sexuality as well as
of other characteristics
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251
Something to Think About
Although it is true that not every single boy or girl
believes in or adheres to gender stereotypes, it
is generally true that society, in part through
schooling, attempts to enforce them. . .even in
the face of contrary evidence.
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