THE MEDIA
The press in the United States is accorded a higher degree of freedom than in most other nations. While it is not
totally free of regulation, it is among the freest in the world. Both France & GB place greater restrictions on the
press than the US. For example, in GB the laws governing libel are so strict that public figures routinely collect
damages from media firms that merely defame or ridicule them. In the US, libel laws permit intense & even
inaccurate criticism of public figures. GB also punishes those who divulge private government business. The US
has the Freedom of Information Act to virtually guarantee that few secrets can be kept very long. Even Napoleon
said “Four hostile newspapers are more to be feared than a thousand bayonets.”
In the US most radio & TV stations are privately owned but do require a license to operate. In many European
nations, at least one or more of the major broadcasters are owned and operated by the government. Of course
newspapers & TV stations in the US must earn a profit. Some critics believe that this forces them to skew the news
to satisfy the desires of advertisers, stockholders, or managers. However, this tendency is counter-balanced by the
desires of the readers (consumers) and the effects of competition.
JOURNALISM IN AMERICAN HISTORY
There are 4 important periods in journalistic history:
1. The Party Press – in the early years of the Republic politicians & parties often sponsored their own
newspapers & controlled what they printed to suit their interests. This was possible because circulation of
a particular paper was usually small (due to transportation limitations) & papers were expensive (because
they were set by hand & presses were slow). Also there were few firms willing to advertise in newspapers.
For example, the Federalist Party published the Gazette of the United States & the Republican Democrats
ran the National Gazette. Newspapers were intensely partisan. Those with the money could purchase
papers that represented both points of view, but it was almost impossible to buy a paper that presented both
sides of an issue.
2. The Popular Press – Changes in technology led to the development of mass circulation. A newspaper
could be bought for a penny and read at home. The telegraph also aided in circulating news over a wider
area. The Associated Press news agency was formed in 1848 – since it circulated news to all types of
papers it could not afford to be neutral or biased. Newspapers began to rely more on advertising revenue &
no longer needed political patronage to remain in business. Newspapers remained partisan, but a papers
point of view depended more on the convictions of the publishers and editors. Strong willed editors such as
William Randolph Hearst could often wield strong political power. Hearst used yellow journalism to
agitate for war with Spain in 1898. He published a steady diet of Spanish atrocities against the Cubans to
whip up public opinion in favor of intervention. At one point Hearst is said to have told a journalist “You
furnish the pictures and I’ll furnish the war.” One effect of mass circulation was the beginnings of a
common national culture.
Eventually in the early 20th century many newspapers consolidated into chains (Gannett, Knight-Rider,
etc.) These media conglomerates own over 78% of American newspapers as well as many radio and TV
stations. This decreases the variety of editorial commentary available.
There is a pecking order, as well, among the newspapers. The most prestigious paper is probably the New
York Times – the closest we come to a national paper. It is followed closely by the Washington Post.
3. Magazines of Opinion – The progressive movement along with a better-educated public brought a call for
an end to yellow journalism. Thus a variety of national magazines appeared that devoted their content to
matters of public policy. These magazines (such as Atlantic Monthly, Harper’s, etc.) were the first to
practice investigative reporting. Many publishers, editors, and reporters became a force to be reckoned
with. The public often called for change because of what they read in these magazines. These political
magazines dominated the industry in the late 19th century. Over time, however, magazines that deal with
popular entertainment and leisure activities became more popular.
4. Electronic Journalism – radio & TV allow public officials to speak directly to a mass audience without
their remarks being filtered trough reporters or editors. However, broadcast news is by its nature limited in
time and depth of reporting. It costs much more money to purchase airtime than it does to purchase print
space. Thus politicians have become adept at doing “things” that will get them free access to TV or radio
newscasts. And of course the increase in channels caused by cable & satellite TV have also had an
influence. Politicians have increased opportunities to appear in the media; but viewers have greater options
in choosing what to watch.
The broadcast media has clearly replaced the print media as American’s major source of news and
information. And in order to be successful politicians today must learn to use TV to their advantage.
Richard Nixon blamed his poor appearance in the 1 st of 4 televised debates for his loss to Kennedy in 1960.
People listening to the debate on radio gave the edge to Nixon, but those watching it on TV thought
Kennedy had won.
There have been no long-term studies as to the effect of these changes in the media on campaigns and
election outcomes. But it is clear that most politicians crave the spotlight.
RULES GOVERNING THE MEDIA
1. Newspapers & magazines need no license to publish. There is very little chance of prior restraint, but they
may be charged with libel (but only if it can be proven that the paper published with reckless disregard for
the truth – with the intent of causing harm). Thus the least competitive form of media has the least
regulations. Newspapers do not need your permission to publish your photograph or a story about you if
you are in any way part of a news story of some conceivable public interest. They are not required to give
you space to respond either.
In some states reporters have the right to keep their sources confidential, but most states & the federal govt.
can compel reporters to reveal their source if it has some bearing on a crime. In general the police may not
obtain a search warrant for a newspaper office to find evidence (notes, phone umbers, names, etc.) but they
may subpoena such information & reporters who refuse will be charged with contempt.
2. TV & radio stations are required to be licensed by the Federal Communications Commission. A radio
license must be renewed every 7 yrs, a TV license every 5 yrs. The renewal process often only involves a
very short form & renewal is automatically granted unless some group formally opposes it. For many years
stations were required to give equal time to political candidates, but this rule was recently suspended.
Many of these deregulations are due to the vast increase in competition among broadcast stations with
cable & satellite TV.
3. In 1975, the FCC initiated the newspaper-broadcast cross ownership rule that bars a single company from
owning a newspaper and broadcast station in the same market. The purpose of the rule is to prevent any
single entity from becoming too powerful a voice in the community. In a democracy it is essential to have
free access to all the available information and cross ownership might limit this access.
Degree of Competition
Most large cities have just one central-city newspapers. However, it is also easier to today to have access to more
than one large paper – especially on the Internet.
Radio & TV, on the other hand, are intensely competitive. There are several national broadcasting stations for TV
and thousands of local stations each with its own news program. There are also several stations that devote 24 hour
a day to the news. In addition there are channels, magazines, and newspapers that are devoted to single issues or
directed towards certain groups. Access to information is at its greatest height in the United States. In most
European nations, the media targets a national rather than a local or specific audience. In the US, most newspapers
are targeted towards a local market & audience. Many stations on radio & TV also target a local audience. In part
this is due to government regulations (controlled by the FCC – Federal Communications Commission). The general
rule is that no one can operate/own more than one newspaper, AM radio station, FM radio station, or one TV station
in a given market. Nationally no one may own more than 12 TV stations, 12 AM radio stations, and 12 FM radio
stations. Thus the broadcast industry is highly decentralized in order to prevent anyone from gaining monopoly
control over the press.
The National Media – Although much of the media is locally oriented, there are several publications and broadcast
services that constitute a national press:
 Wire services – Associated Press & United Press International supply most of the national news that
local papers publish
 National news magazines – Time, Newsweek, etc
 Network news – ABC, CBS, NBC, CNN, etc.
 3 national newspapers – Wall Street Journal, Christian Science Monitor, USA Today (although both
New York Times and Washington Post have national influence as well)
THE EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA ON POLITICS
1.
Gatekeeper – it influences what subjects become national political issues & for how long. They may not
determine if an issue exists, but they can determine if we hear about it. Remember journalism is a profitoriented business – the goal is too make money. The question is how much will the desire for profits
influence the reporting of the news. Recent studies show that in order to pursue high ratings, news shows
are tailored to a fairly low level of audience sophistication. So to a large extent, networks especially, often
define news as what is entertaining to the average vie
2.
Scorekeeper – the national press keeps track of & helps make political reputations. For example, Jimmy
Carter – a virtual unknown in national politics – was able to get his name out there through the press – he
was mentioned in the press more than any other potential Democratic candidate. The press also determines
who is “winning” and who is “losing.” For example, the results of the earliest primaries (that occur in very
small states) are given much more press than the results of later primaries involving larger states).
Consequently, if you do well in Iowa or New Hamp. You get a great deal of free press coverage. This
gives you an automatic boost in the upcoming primaries.
3.
Watchdog – the national press examines every detail of a politician’s life & every action he takes in great
detail looking for scandal. The press tends to be tough on front-runners and tolerant of the underdogs. Of
course, the press can play an important role if it does uncover a true scandal such as the Watergate scandal
uncovered by the Washington Post. In fact the Watergate scandal issued in a new era in the relationship
between journalists and politicians. Journalists began to assume that politicians had something to hide; and
politicians assumed that journalists were out to embarrass them.
Does the Press Influence Public Opinion
1. It helps determine what Americans view as “important issues” – the for profit companies that present the
news make a determination as to what they think actually constitutes news we should hear (or that would
increase their ratings). Studies show that seeing a story about a specific topic on the news does alter our
perception of how important that topic is.
A recent study found a high correlation between issues highlighted in the media and issues voters found to
be important. An example is the proliferation of news stories about shark attacks in the summer of 2001.
In reality there were less shark attacks that year than in previous years, but the news carried numerous
stories on the topic thus increasing the publics’ fears of attacks. Another study found that watching TV
news programs affected the importance people attached to various issues. Thus TV influences the political
agenda.
2.
It helps determine how we attribute responsibility for problems, & what policy preferences they hold.
However, the extent of the influence is unknown as of yet. It is difficult to study the effect of the news
media on people’s opinions because it is difficult to separate the impact of the news from other influences.
By focusing public attention on specific problems, the media influence the criteria by which the public
evaluates political leaders
Is the media biased – News stories tend to be believed almost without question. And in general, Americans
have a favorable view of the press; although there has been an increase in those who think the media tends to
favor one side of a story or who think stories are inaccurate. On the other-hand, 2/3rds of journalist view the
press as unbiased & accurate.
The charge that the media has a liberal bias is a familiar one and there is actually some evidence to support it.
Reporters are more likely to identify themselves as being liberal than the average American; they are also more
likely to identify with the Democratic Party than the Republican Party. 80% of media leaders in Washington
DC voted for Clinton compared to 43% of Americans at large. However, this does not mean that their personal
political leanings influence the content of their stories. Many stories are presented in a point/counterpoint
fashion with both sides given an opportunity to be heard.
Studies also show that journalists work hard to not only present the news in a neutral fashion but to present
themselves as being neutral on any given topic. Media outlets have a financial interest in drawing viewers and
readers from both sides of the political spectrum.
The biggest worry among the public is that editors & reporters allow their own beliefs to influence the stories
they choose to run or to color their reporting. We do know journalists are much more liberal than the public at
large & that those in the national media are the most liberal of all.
Does the fact that the media is more liberal slant the news? Reporters are also influenced by deadlines, the need
to sell newspapers or TV shows, the need to develop sources among those of different viewpoints, and a
professional obligation to be fair.
 Routine type news tends to be covered the most fairly – it is reported virtually the same all over the
country
 Feature stories (generally more in-depth stories that have to be sought out – are not generally well
known issues) must be selected and someone must do the selecting. What is selected might be chosen
not only on the grounds of how intrinsically interesting the story actually is, but also on the
editor’s/reporter’s belief as to what ought to be interesting. Feature stories are becoming increasingly
popular in both the print & broadcast media. A conservative paper will chose one type feature and a
liberal paper another type. For example Time and Newsweek, tended to give a more antinuclear slant
to recent features on the safety of nuclear energy, but the New York Times gave a more balanced view.
 Investigative reports – these stories often raise the issue of motive. Did a personal bias cause the
reporter to seek out a negative story about an issue; or did an insider with a grievance seek to “leak”
negative news on an issue. Since most inside informers are protected it is difficult to determine if there
is a bias.
While news reporting may not have an ideological bias it is often presented in a distorted fashion:
 Because of limited space/time journalists must select which stories will be presented
 Due to economic pressures the media is biased in favor of stories with high human drama rather than
extended analyses of complex issues.
TV news is really little more than a headline service – analysis of news events rarely lasts over a minute.
Complex issues are often treated with sound bites. This is ironic because technology enables us to pass
along great amounts of information rapidly, but instead we get coverage that is less and less complete.
News is especially compressed at the local level where weather and sports are also included.
In the short run, radio & TV suffer from selective attention – we are able to see or hear only what we want to see or
hear; viewers are able to tune out anything they don’t want to hear. So while radio & TV may enforce (or give
strength to existing beliefs), we do not know if it helps change beliefs. Americans are not as dumb as political
advertisers might like to think. They are smart enough to realize that political ads are going to be biased in one
direction.
Although the media may not have a large influence on how people vote, it does influence how politics is conducted
& how policies are formulated. Unknown politicians can use the media to become known simply by being where
the press is & garnering free publicity.
Another study showed that TV viewers viewed issues differently from those who primarily read the newspapers.
Newspaper readers thought Ford was more conservative & Carter more liberal than those who watched TV did.
Newspaper readers saw a bigger difference in the candidates than those who watch TV.
GOVERNMENT & THE NEWS
Every govt. agency must spend time trying to shape public opinion in order to cultivate allies & avoid trouble. This
is because sooner or later some form of media will seek to expose that agency in some way.
The president must especially cultivate the press. His press secretary works closely with the White House press
corps to control the flow of news from the White House & to put a favorable spin on it. No other nation has brought
the press into such close proximity to the govt. as the US has. The press have a lounge & offices right in the White
House (the president’s home). Every move the President makes is closely scrutinized. The president can
manipulate the press by denying access to those reporters that anger the White House – this can have a big impact on
the news a reporter is able to cover.
Congress allows complete coverage of activities on the Hose & Senate floor through cable TV (C-SPAN). Many
Congressional committee hearings are also televised. The vast increase in Congressional staffs has created a
goldmine for reporters – there is a potential source for every conceivable issue and cause.
A surprising amount of news comes from well-established sources. In most news organizations reporters are
assigned to cover a specific “beat”. Studies show that journalists rely almost exclusively on established sources for
their information. Most stories are drawn from situations over which newsmakers have substantial control. Very
little of the news is generated by spontaneous events or a reporter’s own analysis.
Politicians also frequently hold media events – a well-scripted event designed specifically to get media attention. If
the media were not there the event probably would not happen.
Many politicians will “leak” trial balloons to a reporter – this is a small amount of information on a topic leaked to
the public to test what the public’s general reaction will be. If the reaction is unfavorable, the politician can put out
a generally disclaimer and backtrack.
Why Are There so Many Leaks – because of the separation of powers, agencies and branches are forced to
compete for power or control. Thus agencies often leak information to get their spin out before anyone else. The
goal is to make your side look good & the other side weak or bad. Reporters are also often unwilling to take official
press releases at face value so they often seek out inside information on the “real story.” In short, we have an
adversarial press – one that is suspicious & distrustful of officialdom & eager to “break” an embarrassing story that
will win its author prestige, honor, and sometimes money. To some degree, we even have “attack journalism” –
where every mistake or error (even a minor one) is reported over and over again. Attacks on politicians were once
considered taboo, but are now the norm in many media outlets.
The media’s increasing skepticism about govt. is mirrored by the publics increasing skepticism about the press.
Most Americans have less confidence in the media than they did in the past. Similarly. Americans have less
confidence in big business and the media is increasingly a part of big business. The press is highly competitive and
simply put – must sell their product. {At the same time negative campaigning has become increasingly popular with
politicians – because it works. Adversarial press coverage also sells, and it makes negative campaign ads more
acceptable. However, research shows that negative campaign ads also reduce voter turnout.}