Mass Media
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MM: Television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and
other means of popular communication
Many political events are designed purely for mass
media consumption—how it will play on TV?
Politicians and the Media have a love-hate
relationship
In recent years, the relationship has become even
more adversarial
At the same time, the decline of political parties has
made the media more important than ever.
In early days of the Republic, politicians and political
parties financed newspapers
Mass Media Differences
Between U.S. and Europe
U.S. media has less restrictions put on it
that British or French media; it’s much
easier to sue for libel in Britain
 U.S. radio and television is mostly
privately owned
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History of U.S. Political Journalism
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1st Stage: Party Press
Factions printed newspapers because press was expensive, not
widespread, no big advertisers. Papers circulated among elites.
2nd Stage: Popular Press
Technology made mass-distribution cost-effective; telegraph
made news current. Associated Press developed in 1848.
Sensationalism used extensively
Strong-willed, opinionated publishers were powerful
politically…Hearst’s Yellow Journalism led U.S. into SpanishAmerican War
After Yellow Journalism…
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Magazines of Opinion—grew out of repulsion to YJ.
Successful magazines focused on reform, muckraking
to expose conduct (Atlantic Monthly, McClures).
Magazines reduced sensationalism, was the beginning
of “investigative reporting”
Electronic Journalism—More expensive, possibly more
rewarding to politicians…leads to more colorful
politicians. Radio/TV allows direct access to voters
(confrontational shows, Sunday morning shows)
Now, 24 hr. news coverage (cable networks)
Sound bites shorter
Talk radio/TV programs provide media access
Internet: has overnight become a great fundraising
tool
Media Structure
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Competition: Big decline in # of newspapers. Radio and TV
very competitive. Until mid-90s, no one could own more than 1
newspaper/radio station/TV station in 1 market
Only 4% of large cities in U.S. have competing newspapers
National Media: Wire services (Associated Press, United Press
International) supply most news, some magazines (Time) have
national readership
Some papers more influential because they are read by
Washington elite
National press is important for 2 reasons:
1) Government officials pay attention to what media says 2)
Reporters at nat’l level better educated, investigative 3) Have
more liberal outlook
Roles Played by the National Media
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Gatekeeper—Media influences what issues
become part of public debate and for how
long (Auto safety, Chandra Levy, Vietnam)
Scorekeeper—Determines political
reputations. (Carter, Reagan, McCain, way
primaries are covered)
Watchdog—Close scrutiny of important
people/events (Gary Hart, Watergate
scandal)
Campaigning—More Senators use TV, but
Congressmen have used it with differing
success, depending on market
Rules Governing the Media
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Ironically, the least-competitive media (big city
newspapers) are subject to the least amount of
regulation. Newspapers and magazines need no
license, TV & radio do
Prior Restraint not permitted except in grave cases of
national security.
New York Times v. United States (1972): Pentagon
Papers could be printed, despite the fact they were
leaked.
Libel tough to prove; must be wrong and
“convincingly” prove malicious intent
Police may not search newspaper offices; Federal law
provides that documents must be subpoenaed
Rules Pertaining only to Digital Media
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Broadcast licenses must be renewed every 5 years (TV) or 7
years (radio). Must show how community needs are met.
Equal Time Rule: If a station sells air time to 1 candidate, must
be willing to sell equal time to opposition, and rates no higher
than the cheapest commercial rate
Right-of-Reply Rule: If a person is attacked on a broadcast
other than news, they may reply over that same station
Political Editorializing Rule: If a station endorses a candidate,
the opposing candidate has a right to reply
Fairness Doctrine now repealed, provided that shows dealing
with only 1 side of a controversial issue must give time to
opposing views
Recent trend: deregulation. License renewal by postcard—no
hearing unless opposed
Constraints on Journalists
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Reporters are only as good as their sources
Congress has become a source gold-mine
Press won over by leaks of information, “background
stories” where the official can’t be ID’d by name. Also
“deep background:” neither source nor department
can be identified. Occasionally an “on the record” or
“off the record” remark
President often rewards friendly reporters; will give
out policy decisions in advance as “trial balloons”
Supreme court has ruled reporters must answer
questions in Court about sources—unless exempted by
statute
Government & the News: Coverage
President: Prominent coverage. Teddy
Roosevelt built West Wing, catered to
Press
 Press Secretary (FDR invention) plays
large role, as does “White House Press
Corps,” which has incredible access to
the President
 Congress: Resents President’s attention,
has reluctantly embraced C-SPAN
 This has made the Senate an incubator
for Presidential candidates
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Interpreting Political News
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Most Americans get their news from TV, and
claim that TV is more reliable
Liberal views of reporters tend to bias the
news; tend to favor Democratic candidate
most of the time in election years
Type of story determines coverage
Routine Story: covered pretty much the same
by all journalists
Feature Story: Selection process biased,
coverage biased. Greatly increasing in #.
Insider Story: Selection biased, coverage
usually more neutral
Why so many leaks?
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Answer: The Constitution. Most secrets not illegal.
Separation of Powers forces branches to compete for power.
You try to use the press to push your pet projects
Press is adversarial—willing to publish information that will
tarnish government and win prestige for its author…leads to
negative campaigning
Cynicism leads public to expect press to uncover corruption—
seen as a duty
Press can turn on supposed friends (Ask Billy after Whitewater
and Monica)
Most Americans have less confidence in media
Most Americans think media abuses 1st Amendment
Sex and scandals SELL
Most secrets not illegal to reveal
BRANCHES compete—and press is a tool (even w/ unified
The Effect of the Media on Politics
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Selective Attention and Mental Fatigue of viewers limit
effectiveness…TV reinforces more than it changes
Advertising difficult because of huge investment
Local newspapers usually support Republicans
TV/national press support Democrats
Smaller elections have more visible media results
National Nominating Conventions scheduled around media time
so it is convenient to show
Investigations: ex: Kefauver and Organized Crime
Studies have shown that the public considers issues to be
important if they are media-hyped
Newspapers & TV do not portray candidates the same way;
commentators can play a huge role in shaping opinion
Media Bias
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1992 survey of journalists: 44% liberal, 16%
conservative
But media has a direct financial stake in appealing to
viewers from both sides
Some news networks have clear biases (CNN, FOX)
 Governmental tools to fight back
a) Numerous press officers in legislative and executive
branches
b) Press releases—canned news
c) Leaks and background stories to favorite reporters
d) Bypass national press to local
e) Presidential rewards and punishments for reporters
based on their stories
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Ch. 12 Learning Objectives
After reading and reviewing the material in this chapter, the student should be able to
do each of the following:
 1.
Describe the evolution of journalism in United States political history and
indicate the differences between the party press and the mass media of today.
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Demonstrate how the characteristics of the electronic media have affected the
actions of public officials and candidates for national office.
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Describe the impact of the pattern of ownership and control of the media on
the dissemination of news. Show how wire services and TV networks have affected
national news coverage. Discuss the impact of the “national press.”
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Describe the rules that govern the media and contrast the regulation of
electronic and print media. Indicate the impact of libel laws on freedom of the press
and of government rules on broadcasters.
 5.
Assess the impact of the media on politics and indicate why it is so difficult to
find evidence that can be used to make a meaningful and accurate assessment.
Explain why the executive branch probably benefits at the expense of Congress.