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Disclaimer — This paper partially fulfills a writing requirement for first year (freshman) engineering students at the
University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering. This paper is a student, not a professional, paper. This paper
is based on publicly available information and may not be provide complete analyses of all relevant data. If this paper is used
for any purpose other than these authors’ partial fulfillment of a writing requirement for first year (freshman) engineering
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INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF THE SCUDERI SPLIT-CYCLE
THROUGH THE USE OF THE MILLER CYCLE
Jason Bluedorn, jdb168@pitt.edu, Vidic 2:00, Jennifer Dudek, jed121@pitt.edu, Lora 4:00
Abstract — A split-cycle engine is an engine in vehicles that
consists of paired cylinders which perform the events of a
typical four-stroke engine. One pair of cylinders performs the
intake and compression while the other set performs the power
and exhaust duties. Our paper focuses on the innovation to the
split-cycle engine by a research group called the Scuderi
Group. The Scuderi Group has been working on a prototype
that, using patented technology, increases efficiency in air
compression and combustion processes to create a more cost
and energy efficient engine. By optimizing each cylinder pair
for specific jobs, the engine is smaller and more thermally
efficient, and is expected to expel up to 80% less pollutants.
This is essential in the mobile world we live in today.
The improvements to efficiency in size and energy is
increased by the Miller cycle, the idea of having a higher
expansion ratio (the amount of work the engine does when the
air/fuel mixture detonates) than compression ratio. Another
focus of our paper, the Miller cycle increases the expansion
ratio without increasing the compression ratio using delayed
closure of intake valves. We will be explaining both the Miller
cycle and the Scuderi split-cycle engine in greater detail, how
they are paired together, and the advantages of these
innovations over conventional engines, along with some
setbacks and downsides.
to. Simply applying the miller cycle directly to a split-cycle
engine does not produce the results trying to be obtained. There
are many aspects of the engines that have to be taken into
account. The advantages found through research include a
decrease in Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) emissions, reduction in
engine size, and a more advantageous break mean effective
pressure.
THE SPLIT-CYCLE ENGINE AND HOW IT
WORKS
Before the actual miller cycle process and application is
explained there needs to be an understanding of how the splitcycle engine works. To help understand the significance of the
split cycle engine, the process of a regular Otto-cycle engine
must also be known so there is a basis of comparison between
the technologies.
Otto-Cycle Engines
The Otto-cycle engine and the split-cycle engine are similar
in that both engines typically use four cylinders. Engines can
have anywhere from two to twelve cylinders, but generally
there are four. Both engines are also internal combustion
engines. The difference between the split-cycle and the Ottocycle engine, however, arises in how the four cylinders are
used. A regular Otto-cycle engine has all four cylinders doing
the same process, called a cycle. There are four different parts
to the cycle; the intake, the compression, the combustion, and
the exhaust. Each of these parts is called a stroke. Two valves
are located on each cylinder, an intake valve and exhaust valve,
and are powered by a camshaft. As the intake valve opens a
mixture of air and fuel is injected into the cylinder. This is the
intake stroke. It is followed by the intake valve closing and the
piston rising to compress the air/fuel mixture within the
cylinder, known as the compression stroke. The compression
ratio in this situation is the ratio of the height of the piston from
where starts compressing the mixture to where it stops
compressing. Once the piston reaches the top of the cylinder a
spark ignites the fuel which rapidly combusts (known as the
combustion stroke). This forces the piston back down in the
cylinder, which turns the crankshaft and provides power for
the car. The final stroke is the exhaust stroke, during which the
Key Words- engine efficiency, engine innovation, Miller cycle,
Scuderi Group, split-cycle engine
EFFICIENCY IN AUTOMOTIVE ENGINES
Automotive engine efficiency is an extremely important
topic in today’s society. Not only are cars and automobiles
everywhere but there is a constant search for ways to improve
the efficiency of how all engines run. There are numerous
techniques and cycles that have been discovered and used to
slightly increase the efficiency of engines, but a recent
application is found in the combination of the miller cycle with
the Scuderi split-cycle engine. The combination is supposedly
more efficient than the standard Otto-cycle internal
combustion engine.
Through the research of the miller cycle process and
function of the split-cycle engine it is clear that to achieve
goals of higher efficiency, certain detailed parts of the
combustion process in an engine must be paid careful attention
University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering
2016/03/04
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Jason Bluedorn
Jennifer Dudek
piston rises and the exhaust valve opens for the exhaust to exit
the cylinder, completing the cycle [1]. While each piston goes
through the same process, generally the timing is staggered.
Some engines have cylinders fire simultaneously, but in most
engines the pistons are set one stroke apart, so there is constant
power supplied to the engine.
volumetrically efficient [4]. Another problem was that the
split-cycle engine would compress the gas, which would then
decompress from the crossover valve and into the combustion
and expansion cylinder, so it then needed to be compressed
again. This made it less efficient than a conventional engine,
since the gas would only need to be compressed once [4].
FIGURE 2 [3]
One pair of the cylinders from a split-cycle engine.
The Scuderi Group and Their Innovation on the SplitCycle Engine
FIGURE 1 [2]
The four cylinders of an Otto cycle, internal combustion
engine.
A research group known as the Scuderi Group has been
researching and designing the split-cycle engine since 1994.
The group was started by Carmelo Scuderi, a thermodynamics
and fluid mechanics engineer from Springfield,
Massachusetts. He became well respected in the scientific
community when he developed a technology for compressors
to help prevent chlorofluorocarbons from entering the
atmosphere. His design was featured in Discovery magazine
for its help to the environment and is still the standard for use
today [5]. Scuderi worked on the design for the split-cycle
engine for 17 years, working with his family to finalize designs
in 2001 with his children and getting patents and licensing.
However, before anything could come of it, Scuderi passed
away in 2002, leaving the job of continuing the research and
development of the technology to his family [5].
The Scuderi Group found a way to get around the setbacks
of the previously attempted split-cycle engine designs. To
eliminate the remaining compressed air in the compression
cylinder, the Scuderi group simply made the piston in the
cylinder push up until being within 1 mm of the top of the
cylinder. This ensures that almost the entire amount of the gas
is pushed into the crossover valve. Solving the other problem
has to do with the positioning of the piston and when the
ignition occurs. When the piston reaches the top of the cylinder
it is known as top dead center (TDC). Traditional engines fire
As seen in figure 1, each cylinder shows a different stroke
in chronological order. Each piston individually performs
those four strokes starting with the intake and ending with the
exhaust.
Split-Cycle Engines
In the split-cycle engine, the four cylinders in a split-cycle
engine are split into two pairs. In a single pair of cylinders, one
of the cylinders performs the intake and compression and the
second cylinder performs the combustion and expansion, and
the exhaust. Due to the combination of the cylinders the engine
is able to fire in half the amount of strokes compared to a
typical Otto-cycle engine. In order to get the compressed
air/fuel mixture to the second cylinder, there is a crossover
valve connecting the two. As the piston rises and compresses
the mixture, it is forced through the crossover passage. Once
the mixture is compressed and being forced into the second
cylinder then a spark ignites the fuel.
There were always a few reasons as to why the split-cycle
engine was less efficient than conventional engine. One of
these reasons was that the compression chamber would trap
high-pressure air, which would then need to expand again
before more air could be drawn in. This made the engine less
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Jennifer Dudek
before top dead center (BTDC), and the only way to do this in
the split-cycle engine was to allow the gas to enter the
combustion cylinder in its upward stroke, which is why the gas
decompressed. But the Scuderi split-cycle engine, instead,
ignites after the piston has reached its maximum height. In this
case, where it fires after the maximum height, is called firing
after top dead center (ATDC). Firing ATDC is a very
important part of what makes the split-cycle engine differ from
a conventional one, and eliminates the need to recompress the
gas.
NOx Emissions
A particularly large advantage that arises from the miller
cycle is the decrease in NOx (nitrogen oxides) emissions. A
research done on internal combustion engines (ICEs) shows
that with the miller cycle a regular engine can have a decrease
in NOx emissions. The more efficient the combustion process
is the higher the temperature which in turn produces more
NOx. At lower temperatures oxygen and nitrogen do not react
but when the temperature becomes high enough, the reaction
is forced and emissions increase.
In a specific study on the decrease of NOx emissions
regular ICEs were tested with the miller cycle and
supercharging applied. The results show that with the miller
cycle and little supercharging will produce the least amount of
NOx emissions. A downfall to this is the reduced power output
due to lack of super charging so it is important to look at the
combination of miller cycle and higher supercharging. The
NOx emissions increase when the supercharging increases but
the emissions are still lower than a standard engine
supercharged and not supercharged [8].
THE MILLER CYCLE AND HOW IT
WORKS
The miller cycle is an adaptation of the Otto-cycle in which
the intake valve remains open as the compression stroke
begins. The stroke then consists of two parts: compressing the
air while the valve is still open and compressing the air once
the valve is fully closed. While the valve is still open some of
the air/fuel mixture (charge air) is expelled back out of the
cylinder. Due to leaving the intake valve open for part of the
compression stroke, the compression ratio in the cylinder is
reduced. Normally this partial loss would reduce the engine
power but a supercharger with an intercooler can be used to
boost the power output and lower the temperature of the charge
air. The air is cooled by the intercooler between the
compression processes. The combination of the lower intake
charge temperature combined with the lower compression
ratio of the intake stroke produces a lower final charge
temperature than would be obtained by simply increasing the
compression of the piston. The lower charge air temperature
increases thermal efficiency, increases power output, and
reduces NOx emissions. The ignition timing can be advanced
from what is normally allowed before the detonation of the
charge air, which is what increases the thermal efficiency and
the change in compression ratio along with the supercharger is
what increases the power output [6].
When the miller cycle is being used it is almost always
paired with turbocharging or supercharging the engine. The
idea behind turbocharging or supercharging an engine is to
increase the amount of air/fuel mixture that is injected into the
cylinder. One might think you can just add more fuel to create
more power but this is not the case. To increase the power you
need to increase both the air and fuel intake so when
combustion takes place, the stoichiometry of the reaction
produces a maximum output. A turbocharger takes the exhaust
from the exhaust valve and uses it to spin a fan which takes in
large amounts of air and condenses it. This air is then pushed
through a cooler with further condenses it before it is injected
into the cylinder. This process enables an engine to have more
air intake to increase power. A supercharger serves the same
purpose except it is not powered by the exhaust output but
instead by a belt that connects directly to the engine [7].
FIGURE 3 [8]
NOx emissions of and ICE engine with and without the
application of the miller cycle.
As seen in the figure the STD-T1.1 is the standard engine
with the first turbocharge used. Likewise, the STD-T1.2 is with
the second turbocharge (at a different efficiency level). The
C57 and C62 are the applications of the miller cycle by
changing the camshaft and therefore changing the valve
timing. Both the C57 and C62 were tested at the two
turbocharge levels T1.1 and T1.2. C62 has the most delayed
valve timing compared to the standard engine. Based on the
curves the engines with the miller cycle applied generally have
lower NOx emissions than the standard ICE [8].
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Jason Bluedorn
Jennifer Dudek
increase in power density. Throughout the study the
researchers tested different boost levels while running the
engine at 4000 rpm (representative of the full output point) and
then at 1400 rpm (representative of the maximum torque
operating point) [10].
APPLYING THE MILLER CYCLE TO THE
SPLIT-CYCLE ENGINE
Understanding the combination of these two systems can be
done by reviewing tests that have been performed on the topic.
David Branyon and Dean Simpson of Southwest Research
Institute wrote a technical paper on the application of the miller
cycle to the split-cycle engine. The paper was published by
SAE International after being peer reviewed and provides the
necessary data for explaining the combination of the two
cycles and the impact that they could potentially have.
4000 RPM RESULTS
Brake Mean Effective Pressure
The brake mean effective pressure is the mean pressure that
if applied to the piston uniformly from top to bottom of the
power stroke would produce the measured (brake) power
output. The higher the BMEP the more the engine has been
optimized. It compares the engine volume, rpm, and engine
power output.
For the 4000 rpm testing the results showed that as the
miller factor was increased the actual displacement on the
engine decreased, which increases the BMEP at a high rate.
Also, a contribution to the increase in BMEP is due to the
increase in expander volumetric efficiency which results in
high power output [10]. A regular ICE can have some of these
advantages from the miller cycle but it cannot have the
physically size reduction of the engine displacement because
each piston performs the compression and expansion strokes
meanwhile the SSCE can downsize the compression cylinder
because it will not affect the size of the expansion cylinder.
Approach to Combining the Miller Cycle and Split-Cycle
The main approach taken to accomplish a working
relationship between the two cycles was to create an
overexpansion of the combustion gases. To achieve this there
are two possible scenarios. Changing the overexpansion of the
gases can be done through the variation of the intake valve
closing time or through different sizing of the compression and
expansion cylinder. In this specific study they chose to change
the sizes of the compression and expansion cylinders. The
miller cycle was applied to a spark-ignited, stoichiometric,
gasoline-fueled version of the Scuderi split-cycle engine
(SSCE) along with a turbocharger to simplify the analysis of
the data.
Engine knock, also be known as detonation, is when there
is, “uncontrolled, self-instigated combustion of normally inert
gas components usually with high flame speeds around the
velocity of sound, and also causes high- pressure peaks” [9].
This means that within the engine cylinder the air/fuel mixture
combusts before the spark-ignition occurs. The sound it
produces is more of a pinging sound than a knock. If bad
enough it can be detrimental to the car engine. When running
engines at high efficiency levels the engine knock needs to be
controlled. The knock of an engine provides another aspect
that needs to be considered before moving on with the
combination of the two cycles. The study tested different boost
levels and to do so they found a knock index. A compressor
stroke was swept from a low value to a high value while the
intake valve event was kept at its maximum volumetric
efficiency. A knock index was calculated per the general form
of ignition delay. Then a limiting knock index was picked for
the entirety of the study. The compressor stroke that reaches
the knock index without exceeding it was determined, which
led to finding the optimum operating point for a certain boost
level. As expected when the boost level increased the
compressor stroke was smaller for the same knock index.
By the combination of the turbo boost and the compression,
the volumetric efficiency of the expander cylinder was
increasing as the boost was increased. This is due to the fact
that after the turbocharger compression the air is cooled. The
reduced temperature at end of compression and higher pressure
together are able to provide an increased trapped mass for the
expansion cylinder. Increased trapped mass produces an
Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is the rate of fuel
consumed over the power output of the engine and allows one
to compare different engines. Therefore a lower BSFC is
desired. The BSFC improvement is largely due to the miller
cycle by itself but in the application the SSCE, the SSCE
provides improvement to BSFC because as the physical
displacement is reduced, the friction losses are reduced [10].
FIGURE 4 [10]
BMEP and BSFC curves for 4000 rpm tests.
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Anti-Knock Characteristic
BROAD PERFORMANCE OVERVIEW
Anti-knocking is a factor that improves the performance of
the SSCE. The SSCE receives this characteristic for two
reasons: late fuel delivery and fast fuel combustion. The short
fuel delivery through the crossover passage provides minimal
time for fuel decomposition before the fuel is actually ignited.
High turbulence created by the flow over the crossover
valve just before the ignition results in a fast flame propagation
which produces very quick combustion. These two aspects of
the SSCE make for powerful tools in avoiding knocking [10].
Between testing at 4000 rpm and 1400 rpm the decided
optimum compressor displacement was 55 mm. When points
are selected at 55 mm for the compressor stroke at low turbo
efficiencies the results are as follows. At 4000 rpm the BMEP
is just under 19 bar while at 1400 rpm it is about 19.5 bar.
These numbers are roughly twice that of a naturally-aspirated
engine (an engine that takes in air without any charging).
IMPACT ON SOCIETY
Structural Advantages of SSCE over an ICE
As with all new technologies, there is a question as to what
are the potential benefits to this design of engine, as well as the
negatives. Though the engine is relatively new, so there is not
any commercial use to use as example, the potential benefits
that the engine could have would most certainly be worth
looking into.
The miller cycle can be applied to an ICE but there are just
certain structural parts of a SSCE that make it more
advantageous when paired with the miller cycle. In order to
apply the cycle to an ICE the valve timing has to be changed.
When the intake valve timing is changed the piston is rising at
a high velocity as the valve is still open. Due to the intake valve
being open it makes for a poor pumping work scenario. The
piston would still be compressing the gas through the small
intake valve opening but it will be lost because it is leaving the
cylinder. On the other hand, the SSCE is able to accomplish
the application of the miller cycle by changing the size of the
cylinder while still operating at maximum efficiency for valve
timing. None of the compressed air/fuel mixture is lost but the
compression stroke is downsized.
Advantages
The split cycle engine has many things that set it above and
beyond the typical four stroke engine. The Scuderi split cycle
engine is expected to put up to 80% less emissions, which is
much greater for the environment than the conventional
engine. The split-cycle engine is also expected to increase the
efficiency of the engine from 33%, a standard for today’s
engines, to nearly 40% [11]. This will also help to decrease
emissions as well as to help save money and resources in the
form of fuel. With gasoline being such a limited resource,
slowing down the usage of it is important. The engine is also
smaller, allowing it to be more easily put into cars and taking
up less space. Since the cylinders require less intake, they can
be made smaller.
Besides direct advantages to mankind, there are specific
advantages to the Scuderi split-cycle design over the
conventional Otto-cycle design. One of these is the flexibility
of the design, which allows for additional features such as
superchargers or turbochargers to be added in easier. This is
also beneficial because the exhaust from the engine can then
be used to power a turbocharger, which then adds more air to
the combustion chamber, allowing the Miller cycle to be more
easily implemented. Not only this, but because the first
cylinder in the cylinder pair is essentially an air compressor,
an air tank could easily be added to make a system that can
also store energy in the form of compressed air that is normally
lost during use, and use this to help power the engine, making
the engine more efficient.
1400 rpm Results
The results produced from running the engine at 1400 rpm
are very similar to those when running the engine at 4000 rpm.
The turbocharging machinery and boost levels were not
constrained to match the exact ones used when performing
tests at 4000 rpm. The results appeared to increase the BMEP
and decrease the BSFC but there was less of a noticeable
difference between the curves representing the operation at a
low and high turbo efficiency.
Disadvantages
One of the biggest concerns is the lack of time and
experience with this model of engine. The Scuderi split cycle
engine has only ever been made into a prototype, so there are
no actual cars that have this in use. Thus, there could be many
FIGURE 5 [10]
The BMEP and BSFC curves for 1400 rpm tests.
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Jason Bluedorn
Jennifer Dudek
potential problems with the engine. Also, although it is
expected to be more efficient and expel less pollutants, in the
end it is still and engine that is powered by petroleum , a nonrenewable resource that is quickly running out. This decreases
the value of it, especially the longer it takes until it is made into
a product that is on the market. The longer it takes, the less fuel
there will be to power it. Another problem is that because it is
so different from conventional engines and has a more
complex design, the cost to create these engines is likely to be
higher. This flaw could also lead to issues when it comes to
problems that occur with the engine. If a mechanic is
unfamiliar with the design of the engine, it will be much more
difficult for him/her to fix the engine.
This raises the question of morals and ethics as it applies to
research. Money is an incredibly important part of research, as
without funding, you cannot pay for materials to test, or people
to conduct the research. But when people invest money into a
product, they expect to see results. In this case, it seems as if
the money poured into the research into the split-cycle engine
was not used to its fullest capabilities, and investors were tired
of it. If investors do not see results, they will stop funding the
research, and for such a potentially good product to be lost and
forgotten is not in the world’s best interest.
VALUES OF THE SPLIT-CYCLE AND
MILLER CYCLE COMBINATION
Other Future Applications
In a world as mobile and so reliant on vehicles as the one
we live in, it is very important to find ways to make these
vehicles better. A more efficient engine that uses less fuel and
produces less pollutants is an incredible innovation to the
world. Saving people money on the expenses of travelling in
cars is something that is to be strived for. Considering how
early in development the Scuderi split-cycle engine is, it stands
to reason that more research and resources should be put into
finishing the designs and producing the product for consumers.
Having this engine in a large number of vehicles would not
only be beneficial for the environment and the consumers, but
it could also push others to find even more efficient and
environmentally friendly alternatives to the conventional car
engine.
The Scuderi Group not only made changes to the split-cycle
engine to make it relevant today but they also came up with an
air hybrid concept. An air tank would be attached to the
crossover passage between the compression and power
cylinders. The idea is that the tank would store compressed air
that would otherwise be lost in the operation of the vehicle.
One way this could operate would be to turn off the power
cylinder and run the compression cylinder which would fill the
storage tank. Then the compression cylinder could be turned
off and the storage tank could provide what is needed to run
just the power cylinder. The last way to run the engine would
be on a cruising mode. Part of the compressed air would go
through the whole process and be used by the power cylinder
while part of it would be stored in the air tank. Once the air
tank is full then the compression cylinder would shut off and
the engine would be running on high efficiency mode with just
the power cylinder operating [12].
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[1] M. Brain. (2016). “How Car Engines Work”.
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[2] D. Kopeliovich. (2015). “Bearings in internal combustion
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TROUBLE WITH SCUDERI
The possible advantages of the Scuderi split-cycle engine
and the data to support these advantages seem to point to a
revolution in the way car engines are made. With more
efficiency and less pollution, it seems like Scuderi would be
urgently trying to put it out into market. But in researching the
company and their innovation of car engines, it seems as if all
review and information stopped in 2013. This could potentially
be because of a lawsuit that occurred in that year from the
Security and Exchange Commision of $100,000. According to
Long Island Business News, the company had raised over 80
million dollars in investments, but, “after 11 years, the
company still has no revenue and instead has relied on the
more than $80 million raised to keep it going” [13]. The family
was supplying bonuses to their family employees, and even
giving money to family members not employed by the
company, but still was not making money. This could
potentially by why there has been no further information on
the engine since 2013.
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Jennifer Dudek
improve performance and decrease NO emissions.” Energy.
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ADDITIONAL SOURCES
L. Case. (2010). “Scuderi Group Files New Patents for Next
Generation Split-Cycle Engine.” Business Source Complete,
EBSCOhost. Automotive Industries 190, 12, p. 38. (Online
article).
http://web.a.ebscohost.com/bsi/detail/detail?sid=2c2a8eeb67a9-4561-826ca87ca913bdbe@sessionmgr4004&vid=19&hid=4214&bdata
=JnNpdGU9YnNpLWxpdmU=#AN=62250554&db=bth
T. Martin. (2010). “IN WITH THE OLD.” Business Source
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(2016). “Patents”. Scuderi Power. (Online article).
http://www.scuderigroup.com/our-patents/
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank our writing instructor, Liberty
Ferda, for such great feedback and also our co-chair, Colleen
Hilla, for meeting with us every week and guiding us through
the writing process.
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