Chapter 16
Contextual Influences on Development II –
Television, Computers, School, and Peers
THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
•
•
•
•
98% of American homes have at least 1 TV
Children 3-11 watch 3-4 hours of TV per day
Boys watch more than girls
Ethnic minority children living in poverty are
heavy viewers
• In moderation, not likely to impair
– Cognitive growth
– Academic achievement
– Peer relations
•
Figure 16.1. Average number of hours per day that American children and adolescents spend
watching television. FROM LIEBERT & SPRAFKIN, 1988.
THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
• Development of Television Literacy
– One’s ability to understand how information
is conveyed on TV
– Prior to 8 or 9, process content in a
piecemeal fashion
• Difficulty understanding chain of events
• Tend to focus on actions
• Younger than 7, difficulty with fictional
nature of TV
THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
• Some Potentially Undesirable Effects of TV
– Effects of Televised Violence
• Majority of programs contain repeated
aggression and violence
• No remorse shown by, or penalty given
to perpetrator
• Research suggests violent cartoon
causes increase in aggression among
peers
THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
– TV violence instigate aggression?
• Positive correlation is well demonstrated
• Experimental results show “yes”
• Longitudinal studies show the
relationship is reciprocal
•
Figure 16.2 Relationship between boys’ preference for violent TV programming at age 8 and mean
violence of crimes committed by age 30. ADAPTED FROM HUESSMANN, 1986.
THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
– Other effects of televised violence?
• Mean-world beliefs
–Tendency to view world as a violent
place by people who rely on
aggression
• Desensitize children
–Less upset about violence, more
willing to tolerate acts in real life
THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
– Television as a Source of Social
Stereotypes
• Gender stereotypes
–Generally negative, can be a positive
influence if roles are reversed
• Stereotyped views of minorities
–Usually negative
–However, if portrayals are positive,
can reduce stereotyping
THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
– Children’s Reactions to Commercial
Messages
• Average child sees 20,000 each year
• Prior to age 9, do not understand intent
to sell products
• May be more serious than televised
violence
THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
– Television Viewing and Children’s Health
• One of the strongest predictors of future
obesity is the amount of time spent
watching TV
• Also promotes poor eating habits
–Snacking during TV, eat what is
advertised
THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
– Reducing the Harmful Effects of Television
Violence
• Parents need to monitor children’s TV
viewing
–Not only what to watch, but how to
interpret what they are watching
•
Table 16.1 Strategies for Regulating the Effects of TV on Children’s Development. SOURCE:
Adapted from: Murray, J. P., & Lonnborg, B. (2005). Children and television: Using TV sensibly.
Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service.
•
Table 16.1 Strategies for Regulating the Effects of TV on Children’s Development. SOURCE:
Adapted from: Murray, J. P., & Lonnborg, B. (2005). Children and television: Using TV sensibly.
Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service.
THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
• Television as an Educational Tool
– Educational Television and Children’s
Prosocial Behavior
• Watching prosocial programming lead to
more prosocial behavior
–Only lasting effects if adult monitors
programs and encourages actions
THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
– Television as a Contributor to Cognitive
Development
• Limited research on very young children
• Preschool children – Sesame Street
–Improved cognitive skills
»Numbers, letters, vocabulary,
classification, ordering
»Beneficial for all children,
regardless of SES
•
Figure 16.3 Relationship between amount of viewing of Sesame Street and children’s abilities: (a)
improvement in total test scores for children grouped into different quartiles according to amount of
viewing; (b) percentage of children who recited the alphabet correctly, grouped according to
quartiles of amount of viewing; (c) percentage of children who wrote their first names correctly,
grouped according to quartiles of amount of viewing. FROM LIEBERT & SPRAFKIN, 1988.
CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE COMPUTER
AGE
• Computer-assisted instruction –
– Learn more, enjoy school more
– Discovery programs presented as games
are best
– Word processing programs
• Increases writing skills
– Computer programming
• Facilitates cognitive and metacognitive
development
CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE COMPUTER
AGE
• Concerns about Video Games
– Moderate correlation between playing
violent video games and real-world
aggression
– Actively involved in performing violence
– Reinforced for successful symbolic
violence
– May be more serious than TV violence
CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE COMPUTER
AGE
• Concerns about Social Inequalities
– Economically disadvantaged families may
not have a computer at home
– Boys were more interested in computers
• Gender gap has disappeared
CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE COMPUTER
AGE
• Concerns about Internet Exposure
– Web exposure helps with research for
school topics
– Chat rooms can lead to cybersexual
relationships and potential exploitation
– Web is a recruiting tool for cults and hate
organizations
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
• Schools influence many aspects of
development
– Curricula teach academic knowledge
– Promotes cognitive and metacognitive
growth through rules and problem solving
• Appears that more is better, but not at
too young an age
– Informal curricula teach children skills to
help them become good citizens
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
• Determinants of Effective Schooling
– Effective schools promote
• Academic achievement
• Social skills
• Positive attitudes toward learning
• Low absenteeism
• Continuation of education beyond
required age
• Acquisition of skills to find and hold jobs
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
– Factors that Contribute to Effective
Schooling
• Composition of the student body: highly
motivated and intellectually competent
are best
• School climate: safety, support from
school personnel
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
• Scholastic atmosphere should have
–An academic emphasis
–A challenging, developmentally
appropriate curricula; should be
something students can relate to
–Effective classroom management
–Authoritative discipline practices
–Teamwork (faculty and principal)
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
– The “Goodness of Fit” between Students
and Schools
• One teaching method will not be
effective for all students
–Need to take into account
–Cultural backgrounds
–Personal characteristics
–Developmental needs
•
Figure 16.5 Reading achievement of ethnic Hawaiian first- through third-grade students who
received traditional or culturally compatible classroom instruction. The students who received
culturally compatible instruction read at grade level, whereas those receiving traditional instruction
read far below grade level. ADAPTED FROM THARP & GALLIMORE, 1988.
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
• Do Our Schools Meet the Needs of All Our
Children?
– Public education arose from a need to
Americanize a nation of immigrants, not to
educate a workforce
• Public schools were majority-culture,
middle-class institutions
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
• Educational Experiences of Ethnic Minorities
– African American, Latino, and Native
American students
• Lower grades, achievement test scores
• More likely to be disciplined, held back,
and drop out
– Asian Americans – better than European
Americans academically
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
• Parental attitudes and involvement
–Difference not due to parents
undervaluing education
–Less knowledgeable about and
involved in school activities
–If involvement is high, children tend to
do well in school
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
• Interfacing parent and peer influences
–Authoritative parenting is best for
academic success in African
American and European American
students
–Peer influences can negate this
positive influence
»Low-SES African American and
Latino peers devalue academics
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
–Asian American parents more likely to
be authoritarian, but
»Have a very strong emphasis on
education and achievement
standards
»Have supportive friends
»Result is academic success
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
• Teacher expectancies
–Largest effects in early grades
–Most serious if differential treatment
is ongoing
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
– Education and Developmental Transitions
• Elementary to junior high –
–Loss of self-esteem, interest in
school, declining grades
»Major physical and psychological
changes at time of move
»Led to development of middle
schools (6-8th grades)
»Still lack of fit – need support
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
• How Well-Educated Are Our Children? A
Cross-Cultural Comparison
– Only 25% of American students are truly
proficient in reading and math, and they do
not write well
– Skills are consistently lower than those in
most other industrialized nations
– Differences not due to general intelligence
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
– Classroom Instruction
• Asian students spend more time being
educated on core subjects
• More time is also spent “on-task”
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
– Parental Involvement
• Asian parents are strongly committed to
educational process
• Hold higher achievement expectancies
• Value homework more
• Communicate with teacher more
frequently
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
– Student Involvement
• More time in class
• More homework
• More socialization is centered around
academics
• Academic achievement contributes to
social adjustment and popularity
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
– A Strong Emphasis on Effort
• Asian students, parents, and teachers
believe all students can master material
if they work hard enough
–Not a function of the quality of the
teacher or intelligence
SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT
• School reform
– Necessary, and can be based on
• Strengthening curricula
• Tightening standards for teacher
certification
• Raising standards for graduation
• Spending more days in school
• Involving parents as partners with
teachers
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
• Who or What is a Peer and What Functions
Do Peers Serve?
– Peers – social equals, operating at similar
levels of behavioral complexity
– Peers as Equal-Status Contacts
• Contribute to social competencies
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
• Frequency of Peer Contacts
– Between 2 and 12, children spend more
time with peers, less with adults
– Gender segregation increases with age
• Girls form pairs
• Boys prefer groups
•
Figure 16.7 Developmental changes in children’s companionship with adults and other children.
ADAPTED FROM ELLIS, ROGOFF, & CROMER, 1981.
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
• How Important Are Peer Influences?
– May be more important than parental
influences
• Being rejected by peers leads to
–Increased risk of dropping out
–Delinquent activities
–Serious psychological difficulties
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
• The Development of Peer Sociability
– Sociability – willingness to engage others
in social interaction and to seek their
attention or approval
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
– Peer Sociability in Infancy and Toddlerhood
• Begin interacting in middle of 1st year
• 12-18 months – engaging in complex
interactions
• 18 months – coordinated interactions
and imitation
• 20-24 months – verbal component
–Complementary roles
•
Figure 16.8 The percentage of toddlers showing evidence of immediate imitation, delayed
imitation, and playful imitation across the second year of life. FROM NEILSON & SLAUGHTER, in
press.
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
– Sociability during the Preschool Period
• Nonsocial activities
• Onlooker play – watch but do not join
• Parallel play – play side-by-side, little
interaction
–All three decrease with age
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
• Associative play – share, but do not
cooperate to achieve shared goals
• Cooperative play – collaborate
–Both become more common with age
• Play also becomes more cognitively
complex with age
–Predicts future social competencies
•
Table 16.2 Changes in the Cognitive Complexity of Play Activities from Infancy
through the Preschool Period. SOURCE: Adapted from Howes & Matheson, 1992.
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
• Functions of play in early childhood
–Play in individualistic societies
teaches children to be individuals
–Play in collectivistic societies teaches
children to keep egos under control,
promotes group harmony
–Teaches effective communication
–Provides chances for compromise
–Allows for emotional understanding
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
– Peer Sociability in Middle Childhood and
Adolescence
• 6-10 years – like formal games
• Contacts occur in peer groups
–Interact on a regular basis
–Provide a sense of belonging
–Formulate norms
–Develop a hierarchical organization
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
• Early adolescents
–Form cliques – 4-8 same-sex
members sharing values
• Midadolescence – same-sex cliques
interact forming heterosexual cliques
• Cliques may also merge into crowds –
similar attitudes and activities
–Help form an identity, pave way for
dating relationships
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
• Peer Acceptance and Popularity
– Peer acceptance – extent to which a child
is viewed by peers as a worthy or likeable
companion
• Popular – liked by many, disliked by few
• Rejected – disliked by many, liked by
few; greatest risk of adjustment
problems later in life
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
• Neglected – not really liked or disliked,
basically invisible
• Controversial – liked by many, disliked
by many others
• Average-status – liked or disliked by a
moderate number of peers
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
– Why Are Children Accepted, Neglected, or
Rejected by Peers?
• Parenting styles - warm, sensitive and
authoritative parenting results in likeable
children
• Temperamental characteristics –Irritable, impulsive children may have
negative reactions with peers,
causing rejection
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
• Cognitive Skills
–Popular children have well-developed
role-taking skills
–Rejected children tend to score
lowest on IQ tests
• Social Behaviors
–Popular children are warm,
cooperative, and compassionate
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
–Neglected children are often shy or
withdrawn, but have good social skills
»Worry about their social anxiety
–Rejected-aggressive children
»Alienate peers by forcefully
dominating them
»Overestimate popularity
PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
–Rejected-withdrawn children
»Socially awkward, immature, react
to criticism with aggression
»Withdraw when they begin to be
actively excluded