Part Two:
Parallel Structure, Subject-Verb Agreement,
Apostrophes, Periods, Dashes, Hyphens,
Parentheses, Brackets, Italics (underlining), &
Quotation Marks
Parallel Structure
• There are three sentence elements which
commonly require parallel treatment:
– Coordinated ideas (using coordinate conj.)
– Compared / Contrasted Ideas
– Correlative Constructions (using correlative
conj.)
A sentence reads smoothly when the writer has
taken the trouble to put equal ideas in parallel
form.
Parallel Structure
• Coordinate ideas are equal in rank and are joined
by and, or, nor, for, yet, so, or but.
– FAULTY: The committee studied all aspects of the
problem—humane, political, and cost.
• (Change cost to financial.)
– According to my teacher, my composition revealed
exceptional creative ability but that I make too many
spelling errors.
• Two ways to fix:
• …revealed exceptional creative ability but too many spelling
errors.
• …revealed that I have exceptional creative ability but that I
make too many spelling errors.
Parallel Structure
• Comparisons/Contrasts
– FAULTY: Water-skiing no longer interests me
as much as to go scuba diving.
• Water-skiing and scuba diving
• OR to water-ski and to scuba dive
– FAULTY: Her novel was praised more for its
style than for what it had to say.
• Her novel was praised more for its style than for
its ideas.
Parallel Structure
• Correlative Constructions are formed with
correlative conjunctions: both…and, either…or,
neither…nor, not only…but (also).
– Faulty: At the gate they tried both persuasion and to
force their way in.
• At the gate they tried both persuasion and force.
– The new clerk soon proved herself to be not only
capable but also a woman who could be trusted.
• The new clerk soon proved herself to be not only capable
but also trustworthy.
Parallel Structure
• For complete parallelism, place correlative
conjunctions immediately before the
parallel terms.
– FAULTY:The team both felt the satisfaction of
victory and the disappointment of defeat.
– FAULTY: Mrs. Sayers is not only president of
the National Bank but also of the Chamber of
Commerce.
Parallel Structure
• In parallel constructions repeat an article, a
preposition, or a pronoun whenever necessary to
make the meaning clear:
– Before the meeting I talked with the secretary and
treasurer. [Add the before treasurer to clarify that they
are two different people.]
– The weather was a greater handicap to the invading
army than their enemy. [It sounds like the invaders
would rather fight the enemy than the weather. Add to
before their enemy.]
– We feel certain that she is capable, she will succeed,
and you will be proud of her. [In a series of parallel that
clauses, the meaning is clearer if that is repeated in
each clause. Omission might give the impression that it
is a run-on sentence.]
Parallel Structure
• Make sure you include all words
necessary to make the construction
completely parallel:
– INCOMPLETE: Linda always chose topics
that were more difficult than the other
students.
– COMPLETE: Linda always chose topics that
were more difficult than those of the other
students.
• PRACTICE: Warriner’s p. 242-245, Ex. 1-3
Subject-Verb Agreement
• The number of the subject is not changed by a
phrase following the subject.
– The performance of the first three clowns was very
funny.
– A solution to these problems has been found.
• In formal writing, singular subjects followed by
phrases beginning with together with, as well as,
in addition to, and accompanied by take singular
verbs.
– The captain as well as the coaches was disappointed
in the team.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Indefinite Pronouns
• SINGULAR: each, either, neither, and all ending
in -one, -body, or -thing
• PLURAL: several, few, both, many
• SING. OR PLURAL: some, any, all, and most
depend on context:
– Some of the money was missing. BUT Some of the
dimes were missing.
– All of the fruit looks ripe. BUT All of the cherries look
ripe.
– Most of the book was interesting. BUT Most of the
books were interesting.
– Has any of this evidence been presented? BUT Have
any of my friends called?
Subject-Verb Agreement
Compound Subjects
• Subjects joined by and take a plural verb unless the parts
of a compound subject are considered a unit (macaroni
and cheese, peanut butter and jelly).
– The walls and the ceiling were beautifully decorated.
– Macaroni and cheese is the special again today.
• Singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb.
– My mother or my father is likely to be at home.
• When a singular and a plural subject are joined by or or
nor, the verb agrees with the nearer subject.
– Either the judge or the lawyers are wrong.
– BETTER: Either the judge is wrong or the lawyers are.
Subject-Verb Agreement
• In inverted sentences (subject follows
verb), make sure the verb still agrees with
the subject. (Inverted sentences can be
questions and sentences that begin with
here and there.)
– There’s three routes you can take.
– There are three routes you can take.
– Where’s your mother and father?
– Where are your mother and father?
Subject-Verb Agreement
Collective Nouns
• May be singular or plural
• A collective noun names a group: crowd, committee,
class, jury.
• It takes a plural verb when the focus is on the individuals
in the group.
– The crowd were fighting for their lives.
– The football team were discussing some new plays.
– The family have agreed among themselves to share one car.
• It takes a singular verb when the focus is on the group as
a unit.
– The crowd was an orderly one.
– The team was ranked first in the nation.
– The family is the basic unit of society.
Subject-Verb Agreement
• Expressions stating an amount (time, money,
measurement, weight, volume, factions) are
usually singular when the amount is considered
as a unit.
– Three years in a strange land seems a long time.
– Ten dollars is not enough.
– Three fourths of the money has been recovered.
• When the amount is considered as a number of
separate units, a plural verb is used.
– These last three years have been full of surprises.
– There are two silver dollars in each of the stockings.
Subject-Verb Agreement
• Even when in plural form, the title of a book or the name
of an organization or country usually takes a singular
verb.
– The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was published in 1884.
– The Knights of Columbus is sponsoring a carnival.
– The United States remains the leader of NATO.
• EXCEPTION: Some organizations follow the collective
noun rule (can be sing. or plural): Veterans of Foreign
Wars, New York Yankees, Chicago Bears, etc.
– The Veterans of Foreign Wars attend this conference.
– The Veterans of Foreign Wars is a large organization.
Subject-Verb Agreement
• A few nouns, such as mumps, measles, civics,
economics, mathematics, and physics, although
plural in form, take a singular verb.
• The following similar words are more often plural
than singular: athletics, acoustics, gymnastics,
tactics.
• Politics can be singular (when discussing the
field of study) or plural (when discussing an
individual’s collected set of beliefs).
– Politics today is too dirty for my tastes.
– I do not know what her politics are.
• Scissors and trousers are always plural.
Subject-Verb Agreement
• When the subject and the predicate nominative
differ in number, the verb agrees with the
SUBJECT. (Try to avoid writing sentences where
the subject and PN differ in number.)
• The most appreciated gift was the clothes that
you sent to Haiti.
• The clothes that you sent us were the most
appreciated gift.
• BETTER: Most of all we appreciated the clothes
that you sent.
Subject-Verb Agreement
• Every or many a before a word or series of
words is followed by a singular verb.
– Every mother, father, and student was asked to
contribute to the LAMPLighter fund drive.
– Many a college student wishes to return to the easy
days of high school.
• Don’t and doesn’t must agree with their subjects.
– Use don’t (do not) with I and you.
– Doesn’t takes a singular subject, and don’t goes with
a plural subject.
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
• ALL PRONOUNS MUST AGREE IN NUMBER
AND GENDER WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS.
• The words each, either, neither, one, everyone,
everybody, no one, nobody, anyone, anybody,
someone, and somebody take a singular
pronoun—he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its.
• The use of a phrase after the antecedent does not
change the number of the antecedent.
– Each of the women had removed her shoes.
– Nobody in a position of authority has given his approval
of the bill.
– If anyone calls, tell him I’ll be back later.
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
• When the antecedent can be either masculine or
feminine, acceptable standard usage calls for the
masculine as the gender-neutral term. Of course, in
spoken English, we’ve been using the plural as a way to
maintain gender neutrality.
• Strict adherence to the rule may lead to awkward and
absurd constructions:
– ABSURD: Did everybody leave the dance early because he
wasn’t enjoying himself?
– BETTER: Did everybody leave early because they weren’t
enjoying themselves?
– BEST: Did the guests leave early because they weren’t enjoying
themselves?
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
• Two or more singular antecedents joined
by or or nor should be referred to by a
singular pronoun.
– Neither Lynn nor Bess had her keys with her.
– Neither of the girls had her skis on.
• Two or more antecedents joined by and
should take a plural pronoun.
– Lynn and Bess sat outside with their coats on.
USE AN APOSTROPHE…
• To Form the Possessive Case of Nouns.
A noun is possessive if it can also be
expressed as the last word in an of
phrase: the captain’s chair = the chair of
the captain.
APOSTROPHE
Form the possessives of these with
an apostrophe + s:
• Almost all singular nouns:
–
–
–
–
a woman’s coat
Ms. Davis’s boat
A person’s legal right
The class’s performance
• Plural nouns that do not end in s
– The women’s coats
– The people’s legal rights
– The mice’s nest
Mr. Smith’s truck
A bird’s nest
A fox’s bushy tail
Lois’s dingy old car
APOSTROPHE
Form the possessives of these with an apostrophe alone:
• Plural nouns ending in s:
–
–
–
–
The Smiths’ car
The Davises’ boat
The boys’ gymnasium
The classes’ performance
Two girls’ coats
The birds’ nests
The foxes’ bushy tails
• A few singular nouns that would sound awkward with
another s:
– Ulysses’ travels
Sophocles’ irony
• CAUTION: Do not confuse the ordinary plural of nouns
with the possessive!
– Plural: I know the Smiths.
– Possessive plural: The Smiths’ cat died.
Note these fine points of
possession:
• Joint vs. individual possession: If two or
more nouns possess something jointly,
only the last noun gets an apostrophe:
– Burglars ransacked Marge and Homer’s
house.
• If each noun possesses a separate thing,
each noun gets an apostrophe:
– Burglars ransacked both Lisa’s and Bart’s
rooms.
Note these fine points of
possession:
• In hyphenated words and the names of
organizations, add the apostrophe to the last word
only:
–
–
–
–
His father-in-law’s remarriage has upset his wife.
The commander-in-chief’s order
Proctor and Gamble’s products
The Food and Agriculture Organization’s work
• Though possessive personal, interrogative, and
relative pronouns and adjectives do not take
apostrophes (yours, hers, whose, etc.), possessive
indefinite pronouns DO: anybody’s, someone’s,
each other’s, someone else’s, everybody else’s,
etc.
Note these fine points of
possession:
• Words expressing time or amount usually form
their possessive just as other nouns do:
–
–
–
–
–
–
A dollar’s worth of candy
Five cents’ worth
A moment’s rest
Three days’ rest*
A week’s pay
Two weeks’ pay
*Also correct: a three-day rest
USE AN APOSTROPHE…
• To show contractions and other omissions
of letters or numerals.
– Don’t [do not]
– Who’s [who is]
– Class of ’98 [1998]
– Goin’ [going]
– They’re [they are]
– It’s [it is]
USE AN APOSTROPHE…
• For clarity, to form the plurals of letters,
numbers, symbols, and words referred to
as such.
– Try not to use so many and’s.
– Last term she earned straight A’s.
– His 3’s and 5’s look too much alike.
– Use +’s and –’s on the test.
– Lola’s career waned during the 1980’s [or
1980s].
DO NOT Use an Apostrophe…
• With Possessive Personal Pronouns (His, Hers,
Its, Ours, Yours, Theirs) or with Whose.
• To Form the Possessive of Inanimate Objects
(unless the phrase using of sounds awkward):
–
–
–
–
Poor: the house’s door
Better: the door of the house
BUT Poor: the wait of an hour
Better: an hour’s wait
• To Form the Plurals of Proper Nouns.
– Merry Christmas from the Wilsons.
The Period – Use a period…
• After every sentence except a direct
question or an exclamation. (Declarative
and imperative sentences, as well as
indirect questions)
• The index dropped six points.
• Sell your stocks now.
• I asked how I should sell them.
The Period – Use a period…
•
•
•
•
After an abbreviation or initial.
Mr., U.S., Dr., Calif., M.D., Rev., Ib.
NOTE: Ms. takes a period. Miss does not.
DO NOT use a period with the following:
– Well-known initials of many organizations: IBM, FBI, CBS,
UN, YMCA
– Radio and television stations: WSFA, WHHY
– Money in even-dollar denominations: $40 (but $40.99)
– Contractions: ass’n, sec’y
– Ordinal numbers: 5th, 2nd, Henry VIII
– Nicknames: Rob, Pat, Sid, Pam
– Common shortened terms: memo, math, exam, lab, gym,
TV (These are colloquial; use the full words in formal
writing.)
The Period – Use a period…
• After a number or letter in a formal outline:
I. Sports taught this semester
A. Swimming
B. Softball
NOTE: Do not use a period if…
the number or letter is within parentheses: (1) (a)
the number is part of a title: chapter 4, Henry V
The Period – Use a period…
• In a group of three (…) to show
– Ellipsis (the intentional omission of words) in a quoted
passage. Retain necessary punctuation preceding the
ellipsis:
“But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate…this ground.
The brave men, living and dead,…have consecrated
it.…” – Abraham Lincoln’s “Gettysburg Address”
– Pause, hesitation, and the like in dialogue and
interrupted narrative (do not overuse!):
“Perhaps…certain people have been overlooked
for…personal reasons.”
The Dash
• The dash is a dramatic mark, signaling an
abrupt break in the flow of a sentence. Do
not use it for an ordinary pause or stop, in
place of a comma, period, or semicolon.
On a computer, make a dash by using
two strokes of the hyphen key, with no
spaces before, between, or after--like this.
Use a Dash…
A. To Show a Sudden Break in Thought:
I’ll give—let’s see, what can I give?
The hesitant student began, “May I ask—?”
He might—and according to plans, should—have reinforced the
Second Division.
The title—if, indeed, the poem had a title—has escaped me.
B. To Set Off a Parenthetical Element that is long, that
sharply interrupts the sentence, or that otherwise would
be hard to distinguish. Often the dash has the meaning of
namely, in other words, or that is before an explanation:
We traveled by foot, in horse-drawn wagons, and
occasionally—if we had some spare cash, if the farmers felt
sorry for us, or if we could render some service in
exchange—atop a motorized tractor.
Use a Dash…
C. To Emphasize an Appositive.
He had only one interest—food.
[or … interest: food.]
Drill, inspections, calisthenics—all are part of army life.
The basic skills—reading, writing, and mathematics—
are stressed here.
D. To Precede the Author’s Name After a Direct
Quotation.
“Short words are best and the old words when short
are best of all.” —Winston Churchill
Use a Hyphen…
A. To Join Certain Compound Words (consult a dictionary
to ascertain which): mother-in-law, go-getter, jack-o’lantern
B. To Join the Two Parts of a Compound Adjective Before
the Noun It Modifies.
–
–
–
Route 303 is a well-paved road.
She tried door-to-door selling.
dark-colored glasses
NOTE: Do not hyphenate such a modifier when it follows a
noun as a subject complement: Route 303 is well
paved.
Also do not use a hyphen between an –ly adverb and an
adjective: freshly baked bread.
Use a Hyphen…
C. When Writing Out Two-Word Numbers from 21
to 99 and Two-Word Fractions:
twenty-two
three-fourths
fifty-first
five twenty-fourths
two hundred ten two hundred twenty-two
Also hyphenate a compound adjective containing a
number:
ten-year-old boy forty-hour week
ten-dollar bill
two- and three-room apartments
Use a Hyphen…
D.
To Avoid Ambiguity.
Ambiguous: The advertisement was intended for old train
buffs. [old buffs of trains or buffs of old trains?]
Clear: The advertisement was intended for old-train buffs.
E.
With the Prefixes ex- (when it means “former”), self-, all-,
and the Suffix -elect. Also with all prefixes before a proper
noun or proper adjective.
ex-president
self-confidence all-conference
Senator-elect
Pan-American anti-Russian
NOTE: The modern tendency is to join nearly all prefixes and suffixes to root
words without hyphens, except where ambiguity (recover, re-cover) or
awkwardness might result or where the root is capitalized (anti-American,
Europe-wide). Examples of modern usage are antiterrorist,
noninterventionist, semiliterate (but semi-independent to avoid an
awkward double i), bimonthly, triweekly, and citywide.
Use a Hyphen
F. To Divide a word that will not fit at the end of a line.
Always put the hyphen at the end of the first line, not
the beginning of the second!
–
Words should be divided between syllables. One-syllable
words should never be divided.
– A word having double consonants should be divided
between those consonants (unless ending in –ing)
– Do not divide a word so that a single letter stands alone.
Try to avoid dividing a word so that only two letters are
carried over to the next line.
– Words having prefixes and suffixes should usually be
divided between the prefix and the root of the word or
between the root of the word and the suffix.
under-stand
hap-py
recom-mend
enor-mous
pri-vacy
pre-heat
happi-ness
jump-ing
call-ing
Use a Hyphen…
G. To Indicate Words that are spelled out.
“She wants a d-o-l-l,” her mother said to
her grandmother.
Use Parentheses (always in
pairs)…
A. To Set Off Incidental Information or
Comment.
– Senator Shelby (R., Alabama) is the ranking
member of the Banking, Housing, and
Urban Affairs Committee.
NOTE: Do not overuse parentheses. Use
commas to set off ordinary parenthetical
(interrupting) expressions. Do not use an
opening capital letter or closing period with a
sentence in parentheses within a larger
sentence.
Use Parentheses (always in
pairs)…
B. To Enclose
–
Letters or figures in enumeration:
She is authorized to (1) sign checks, (2) pay bills, and (3)
make purchases.
–
References and directions:
The map (see page 70) shows the terrain of the area.
–
A question mark indicating uncertainty:
Julius Caesar was born in the year 100 B.C.(?) in Rome.
C. For Accuracy, in Legal Documents and
Business Letters:
I enclose fifty dollars ($50).
Use Parentheses (always in
pairs)…
D. With Other Punctuation Marks as Follows:
1. The comma, semicolon, and period follow the closing
parenthesis when the parentheses set off material in a
sentence.
If we go (we are still not sure), you two may go.
He deceived us (weren’t we foolish?); he was clever.
I believed her (though I can’t imagine why).
2. The question mark and the exclamation point go inside
the parentheses if the mark belongs to the parenthetical
element; otherwise, they go outside.
One of the translators was Aquila (died A.D. 138?).
Have you read the translation of Tyndale (died 1536)?
Snerd asked Peter’s fiancée for a date (what gall!).
DO NOT Use Parentheses…
A. To Indicate Deletions. Instead draw a line
through the deleted words:
Wrong: (Never) Seldom have I seen such gall!
Right: Never Seldom have I seen such gall!
B. To Enclose Editorial Comment. Use
brackets for this purpose, as explained in
the next section. 
Use Brackets…
A. To Enclose Your Editorial or Explanatory
Remarks Within a Direct Quotation.
Churchill said in 1940, “If we can stand up to him [Hitler],
all Europe may be free….”
B. With Sic to Mark the Original Writer’s Error in
Material You Are Quoting. (Sic is Latin for “Thus
it is.” Its use clarifies that the error was made
not by you but by the person you are quoting.)
The note ended, “Respectively [sic] yours, Martha.”
C. To Enclose Stage Directions.
MIRANDA [sipping her coffee]: Are you glad to see me?
Italics (Underlining)
• Italics is slanted type. In your handwriting,
indicate italics by underlining: Moby Dick
or Moby Dick
Use Italics to Designate…
A.
Titles of Separate Publications
–
–
Books: Gone with the Wind is one of my favorite novels.
Magazines and Newspapers: Mr. Stanley reads the New Yorker and the
New York Times.
*NOTE: The word the is not capitalized or italicized in a newspaper or
magazine title.
–
–
Bulletins and Pamphlets: Common Sense
Plays, films, TV and Radio Programs, and musical productions:
•
•
•
•
–
Lincoln was shot during a performance of Our American Cousin
Have you ever watched The Color Purple?
I love Masterpiece Theater and MI-5 on PBS.
We enjoyed The Phantom of the Opera immensely!
Poems long enough to be published separately:
•
Tennyson’s In Memoriam
NOTE: DO NOT italicize/underline your own titles for essays.
Use Italics to Designate…
B. Names of Ships, Aircraft, and Spacecraft:
– Captain Nemo commanded the Nautilus.
– The Challenger blew up during take-off when I was
only 6 years old.
– Elvis Presley had his own plane, the Lisa Marie.
C. Titles of Paintings and Sculptures
– The Blue Boy by Gainsborough
– I saw The Thinker by Rodin at his house in Paris.
– At what do you think the Mona Lisa is smiling?
Use Italics to Designate…
D. Foreign Words Not Yet Anglicized:
– It was to late to stop the procedure; it was a fait
accompli.
NOTE: Consult your dictionary if uncertain.
DO NOT underline common abbreviations: A.M., P.M.,
A.D., vs., i.e., e.g., etc.
E. Words, Letters, Figures, or Symbols Referred
to as such:
– The t in often is silent.
– Avoid using & for and in formal writing.
– Claude’s 4’s and 7’s are indistinct.
Use Double (regular) Quotation
Marks [“ ”]to Enclose…
A. Direct Quotations (a speaker’s exact words). Note
that commas set off each quotation: MacArthur
vowed, “I shall return,” as he left the islands.
NOTE: Do not use quotation marks with indirect
quotations: MacArthur vowed that he would return.
•
Observe these fine points of quotation-mark use:
1) With an interrupted quotation, use them only around
the quoted words.
2) With an uninterrupted quotation of several sentences,
use them only before the first sentence and after the
last.
3) With a short quotation that is not a complete
sentence, use no commas: Barrie describes life as “a
long lesson in humility.”
More fine points of quotation-mark
use:
4) When quoting dialogue, start a new paragraph with
each change of speaker:
“He’s dead,” Holmes announced.
“Are you sure?” the young lady asked.
5) Do not use quotation marks around sets of quoted
lines of poetry. Treat them as an indented block
quote.
6) However, you may use a very short poetic
quotation in your text, using quotation marks (with a
slash marking line breaks):
Tennyson shows us an aged Ulysses, “an idle
king,/By this still hearth, among these barren
crags.”
Use Double (regular) Quotation
Marks to Enclose…
B. Titles of Short Written Works: Poems, Articles,
Essays, Short Stories, Chapters, Songs, Oneact Plays.
“Song of the Open Road” is a poem in Walt Whitman’s
Leaves of Grass.
Chapter 1 of The Guns of August is titled “A Funeral.”
A Christmas song that really gets on my nerves is “Mele
Kalikimaka” by Bing Crosby.
C. Definitions of Words
The original meaning of geek was “a performer at a
carnival or circus whose show consists of bizarre or
grotesque acts, such as biting the head off a live
animal.”
Use Double (regular) Quotation
Marks to Enclose…
D. Slang Words, Technical Terms, and other
expressions that are unusual in standard
English. (USE SPARINGLY)
– What “bling” did she have on at the Emmy
Awards?
– Those units of speech are referred to by
linguists as “phonemes.”
– Because his first name was Fiorello, Mayor
LaGuardia was known as the “little flower.”
Use Single Quotation Marks [‘’]…
• To enclose a Quotation Within a Quotation.
Think of this construction as a box within a box.
Ordinary double quotation marks [“ ”] provide
the wrapping around the outer box; single
quotation marks [‘’] provide the wrapping around
the inner box. Be sure to place end punctuation
within the write box!
– She asked the teacher, “Did Marie Antoinette really
say, ‘Let them eat cake’?”
Do Not Use Quotation Marks…
A. To Enclose the Title Introducing a
Composition or Research Paper (unless
the title is a quotation)
B. To Show that a Word is Intended
Ironically or Humorously. Your irony or
humor will be more effective if not so
blatantly pointed out:
Use Other Marks of Punctuation
with Quotation Marks as follows:
A. Periods and Commas: Always put these marks
INSIDE closing quotation marks.
“I see it,” whispered Watson. “It’s the speckled band.”
B. Colons and Semicolons: Always put these
marks OUTSIDE closing quotation marks.
Cody barked, “I have nothing to say”; then he left.
Three students elected to recite “The Jabberwocky”:
James, George, and Peter.
Use Other Marks of Punctuation
with Quotation Marks as follows:
C. Question Marks, Exclamation Points, and
Dashes: Place these marks inside the
quotation marks when they belong to the
quotation, but outside otherwise.
Sally Sue Snerd asked, “Who is my opponent?”
Did Sally Sue Snerd say, “I fear no opponent”?
Did Sally Sue Snerd ask, “Who is my opponent”?
“I don’t believe it!” she exclaimed.
How furious he was when she muttered, “I don’t know”!
“How could you—” Colin began, but faltered.
“Here”—Holmes threw open the door—“is our culprit!”