10
THE AGE OF JACKSON,
1 824-1844
The political activity that pervades the United States must be seen in order
to be understood. No sooner do you set foot upon American ground
than you are stunned by a kind of tumult.
Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 1835
The era marked by the emergence of popular politics in the 1820s and the presidency of Andrew Jackson (1829-1837) is often called the Age of the Common
Man, or the Era of Jacksonian Democracy. Historians debate whether Jackson
was a major molder of events, a political opportunist exploiting the democratic
ferment of the times, or merely a symbol of the era. Nevertheless, the era and
Jackson's name seem permanently linked.
Jacksonian Democracy
The changing politics of the Jacksonian years paralleled complex social and
economic changes.
The Rise of a Democratic Society
Visitors to the United States in the 1830s, such as Alexis de Tocqueville, a
young French aristocrat, were amazed by the informal manners and democratic
attitudes of Americans. In hotels, under the American Plan, men and women
from all classes ate together at common tables. On stagecoaches, steamboats,
and later in railroad cars, there was also only one class for passengers, so that
the rich and poor alike sat together in the same compartments. European visitors could not distinguish between classes in the United States. Men of all
backgrounds wore simple dark trousers and jacket s, while less well-to-do
women emulated the fanciful and confining styles illustrated in wide-circulation women 's magazines like Godey's Lady 's Book. Equality was becoming
the governing principle of American society.
Among the white majority in American society, people shared a belief in
the principle of equality-more precisely, equality of opportunity for white
males. These beliefs ignored the oppression of enslaved African Americans
and discrimination against free blacks. Equality of opportunity would, at least
in theory, allow a young man of humble origins to rise as far as his natural talent and industry would take him. The hero of the age was the "self-made man."
There was no equivalent belief in the "self-made woman," but by the end of
the 1840s, feminists would take up the theme of equal rights and insist that it
should be applied to both women and men (see Chapter 11).
Politics of the Common Man
Between 1824 and 1840, politics moved out of the fine homes of rich southern
planters and northern merchants who had dominated government in past eras
and into middle- and lower-class homes. Several factors contributed to the
spread of democracy, including new suffrage laws, changes in political parties
and campaigns, improved education, and increases in newspaper circulation.
Universal Male Suffrage
Western states newly admitted to the Union-Indiana (1816),
Illinois (1818), and Missouri (1821)-adopted state constitutions that allowed
all white males to vote and hold office. These newer constitutions omitted any
religious or property qualifications for voting. Most eastern states soon
followed suit, eliminating such restrictions. As a result, throughout the
country, all white males could vote regardless of their social class or religion.
Voting for president rose from about 350,000 in 1824 to more than 2.4 million
in 1840, a nearly sevenfold increase in just 16 years, mostly as a result of
changes in voting laws. In addition, political offices could be held by people
in the lower and middle ranks of society.
Party Nominating Conventions
In the past, candidates for office had commonly been nominated either
by state legislatures or by "King Caucus"-a closed-door meeting of a
political party's leaders in Congress. Common citizens had no opportunity to
participate. In the 1830s, however, caucuses were replaced by nominating
conventions. Party politician s and voters would gather in a large meeting hall
to nominate the party's candidates. The Anti-Masonic party was the first to
hold such a nominating convention. This method was more open to popular
participation, hence more democratic.
Popular Election of the President
In the presidential election of 1832, only South Carolina used the old
system in which the state legislature chose the electors for president. All
other states had adopted the more democratic method of allowing the voters
to choose a state's slate of presidential electors.
Two-party System
The popular election of presidential electors-and, in effect, the
president-had important consequences for the two-party system. Campaigns
for president now had to be conducted on a national scale. To organize these
campaigns, candidates needed large political parties.
Rise of Third Parties While only the large national parties (the Democrats and the Whigs in Jackson’s day) could hope to win the presidency, other
political parties also emerged. The Anti-Masonic party and the Workingmen's
party, for example, reached out to groups of people who previously had shown
little interest in politics. The Anti-Masons attacked the secret societies of
Masons and accused them of belonging to privileged, antidemocratic elite.
More Elected Offices
During the Jacksonian era, a much larger number of state and
local officials were elected to office, instead of being appointed, as in
the past. This change gave the voters more voice in their government
and also tended to increase their interest in participating in elections.
Popular Campaigning
Candidates for office directed their campaigns to the interests and
prejudices of the common people. Politics also became a form of local
entertainment. Campaigns of the 1830s and 1840s featured parades of
floats and marching bands and large rallies in which voters were
treated to free food and drink. The negative side to the new campaign
techniques was that in appealing to the masses, candidates would
often resort to personal attacks and ignore the issues. A politician,
for example, might attack an opponent's "aristocratic airs" and make
him seem unfriendly to "the common man."
Spoils System and Rotation of Officeholders
Winning government jobs became the lifeblood of party
organizations. At the national level, President Jackson believed in
appointing people to federal jobs (as postmasters, for example) strictly
according to whether they had actively campaigned for the
Democratic party. Any previous holder of the office who was not a
Democrat was fired and replaced with a loyal Democrat. This practice
of dispensing gov- ernment jobs in return for party loyalty was called
the spoils system because of a comment that, in a war, victors seize
the spoils, or wealth, of the defeated. In addition, Jackson believed in
a system of rotation in office. By limiting a person to one term in office he could then appoint some other
deserving Democrat in his place. Jackson defended the replacement
and rotation of office- holders as a democratic reform. "No man," he
said, "has any more intrinsic claim to office than another." Both the
spoils system and the rotation of office- holders affirmed the
democratic ideal that one man was as good as another and that
ordinary Americans were capable of holding any government office.
These beliefs also helped build a strong two-party system.
Jackson versus Adams
Political change in the Jacksonian era began several years before
Jackson moved into the White House as president. In the controversial
election in 1824, Jackson won more popular and electoral votes than
any other candidate, but he ended up losing the election.
The Election of 1824
Recall the brief Era of Good Feelings that characterized U.S. politics
during the two-term presidency of James Monroe. The era ended in
political bad feelings in 1824, the year of a bitterly contested and
divisive presidential election. By then, the old congressional caucus
system for choosing presidential candidates had broken down. As a
result, four candidates of the Democratic - Republican Party of
Jefferson campaigned for the presidency: John Quincy Adams, Henry
Clay, William Crawford, and Andrew Jackson.
Among voters in states that counted popular votes (six did not) Jackson
won. But because the vote was split four ways, he lacked a majority in the
Electoral College as required by the Constitution. Therefore, the House of
Representatives had to choose a president from among the top three
candidates. Henry Clay used his influence in the House to provide John
Quincy Adams of Massachusetts with enough votes to win the election.
When President Adams appointed Clay his secretary of state, Jackson and his
followers charged that the decision of the voters had been foiled by secret
political maneuvers. Angry Jackson supporters accused Adams and Clay of
making a "corrupt bargain."
THE ELECTION OF 1824
Popular Vote
Electoral Vote
House of Representatives
-Andrew Jackson
John Quincy Adams
Henry Clay
-Wllllam Crawford
Source: Jeffrey B. Morris and Richard B. Morris, editors. Encyclopedia of American History
President John Quincy Adams
Adams further alienated the followers of Jackson when he asked Congress
for money for internal improvements, aid to manufacturing, and even a
national university and an astronomical observatory. Jacksonians viewed all
these measures as a waste of money and a violation of the Constitution. Most
significantly, in 1828, Congress patched together a new tariff law, which
generally satisfied northern manufacturers but alienated southern planters.
Southerners denounced it as a "tariff of abominations."
The Revolution of 1828
Adams sought reelection in 1828. But the Jacksonians were now ready to use
the discontent of southerners and westerners and the new campaign tactics of
party organization to sweep "Old Hickory" (Jackson) into office. Going
beyond parades and barbecues, Jackson's party resorted to smearing the president and accusing Adams' wife of being born out of wedlock. Supporters of
Adams retaliated in kind, accusing Jackson's wife of adultery. The mudslinging campaign attracted a lot of interest and voter turnout soared.
Jackson won handily, carrying every state west of the Appalachians. His
reputation as a war hero and man of the western frontier accounted for his victory more than the positions he took on issues of the day.
The Presidency of Andrew Jackson
Jackson was a different kind of president from any of his predecessors.
A strong leader, he not only dominated politics for eight years but also
became a symbol of the emerging working class and middle class
(the so-called common man). Born in a frontier cabin, Jackson
gained fame as an Indian fighter and as hero of the Battle of New
Orleans, and came to live in a fine mansion in Tennessee as a wealthy
planter and slave-owner. But he never lost the rough manners of the
frontier. He chewed tobacco, fought several duels, and displayed a
violent temper. Jackson was the first president since Washington to
be without a college education. In a phrase, he could be described as
an extraordinary ordinary man. This self-made man and living
legend drew support from every social group and every section of
the country.
Presidential Power
Jackson presented himself as the representative of all the people
and the protector of the common man against abuses of power by the
rich and the privileged. He was a frugal Jeffersonian, who opposed
increasing federal spending and the national debt. Jackson interpreted
the powers of Congress narrowly and therefore vetoed more bills12-than all six preceding presidents combined. For example, he
vetoed the use of federal money to construct the Maysville Road,
because it was wholly within one state, Kentucky, the home state of
Jackson’s rival, Henry Clay.
Jackson's closest advisers were a group known as his "kitchen
cabinet," who did not belong to his official cabinet. Because of
them, the appointed cabinet had less influence on policy than under
earlier presidents.
Peggy Eaton Affair
The champion of the common man also went to the aid of the
common woman , at least in the case of Peggy O'Neale Eaton. The
wife of Jackson's secretary of war, she was the target of malicious
gossip by other cabinet wives, much as Jackson's recently deceased
wife had been in the 1828 campaign. When Jackson tried to force the
cabinet wives to accept Peggy Eaton socially, most of the cabinet
resigned. This controversy contributed to the resignation of Jackson's
vice president, John C. Calhoun, a year later. For remaining loyal
during this crisis, Martin Van Buren of New York was chosen as vice
president for Jackson’s second term.
Indian Removal Act (1830) Jackson's concept of democracy did
not extend to American Indians. Jackson sympathized with landhungry citizens who were impatient to take over lands held by
American Indians. Jackson thought the most humane solution was to
compel the American Indians to leave their traditional homelands and
resettle west of the Mississippi. In 1830, he signed into law the Indian
Removal Act, which forced the resettlement of many thousands of
American Indians. By 1835 most eastern tribes had reluctantly
complied and moved west. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was created
in 1836 to assist the resettled tribes.
Most politicians supported a policy of Indian removal. Georgia and
other states passed laws requiring the Cherokees to migrate to the
West. When the Cherokees challenged Georgia in the courts, the
Supreme Court ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831 that
Cherokees were not a foreign nation with the right to sue in a federal
court. But in a second case, Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the high
court ruled that the laws of Georgia had no force within Cherokee
territory. In this clash between a state's laws and the federal courts,
Jackson sided with the states. The Court was powerless to enforce its
decision without the President's support.
INDIAN REMOVAL IN THE 1830s
Trail of Tears Most Cherokees repudiated the settlement of 1835,
which provided land in the Indian Territory. In 1838, after Jackson had
left office, t h e U.S. Army forced 15,000 Cherokees to leave Georgia.
The hardships on the "trail of tears" westward caused the deaths of
4,000 Cherokees.
Nullification Crisis Jackson favored states' rights-but not disunion.
In 1828, the South Carolina legislature declared the increased tariff
of 1828, the so-called Tariff of Abominations, to be unconstitutional. In
doing so, it affirmed a theory advanced by Jackson's first vice
president, John C. Calhoun. According to this nullification theory,
each state had the right to decide whether to obey a federal law or to
declare it null and void (of no effect).
In 1830, Daniel Webster of Massachusetts debated Robert Hayne
of South Carolina on the nature of the federal Union under the
Constitution. Webster attacked the idea that any state could defy or
leave the Union. Following this famous Webster-Hayne debate,
President Jackson declared his own position in a toast he presented at
a political dinner. "Our federal Union," he declared, "it must be
preserved." Calhoun responded immediately with another toast: "The
Union, next to our liberties, most dear!"
In 1832, Calhoun’s South Carolina increased tension by holding a special
convention to nullify both the hated 1828 tariff and a new tariff of 1832. The
convention passed a resolution forbidding the collection of tariffs within the
state. Jackson reacted decisively. He told the secretary of war to prepare for
military action. He persuaded Congress to pass a Force bill giving him authority to act against South Carolina. Jackson also issued a Proclamation to the
People of South Carolina, stating that nullification and disunion were treason.
But federal troops did not march in this crisis. Jackson opened the door for
compromise by suggesting that Congress lower the tariff . South Carolina
postponed nullification and later formally rescinded it after Congress enacted
a new tariff along the lines suggested by the president.
Jackson's strong defense of federal authority forced the militant advocates
of states' rights to retreat. On another issue, however, militant southerners had
Jackson's support. The president shared southerners' alarm about the growing
antislavery movement in the North. He used his executive power to stop antislavery literature from being sent through the U.S. mail. Southern Jacksonians
trusted that Jackson would not extend democracy to African Americans.
Bank Veto Another major issue of Jackson's presidency concerned the rechartering of the Bank of the United States. This bank and its branches ,
although privately owned, received federal deposits and attempted to serve a
public purpose by cushioning the ups and downs of the national economy.
The bank’s president, Nicholas Biddle, managed it effectively. Biddle's arrogance, however, contributed to the suspicion that the bank abused its powers
and served the interests of only the wealthy. Jackson shared this suspicion. He
believed that the Bank of the United States was unconstitutional.
Henry Clay, Jackson's chief political opponent, favored the bank. In 1832,
an election year, Clay decided to challenge Jackson on the bank issue by persuading a majority in Congress to pass a bank-recharter bill. Jackson promptly
vetoed this bill, denouncing it as a private monopoly that enriched the wealthy
and foreigners at the expense of the common people and the "hydra of corruption." The voters agreed with Jackson. Jackson won reelection with more than
three-fourths of the electoral vote.
The Two-Party System
The one-party system that had characterized Monroe's presidency (the Era of
Good Feelings) had given way to a two-party system under Jackson. Supporters of Jackson were now known as Democrats, while supporters of his leading
rival, Henry Clay, were called Whigs. The Democratic Party harked back to the
old Republican party of Jefferson, and the Whig party resembled the defunct
Federalist party of Hamilton. At the same time, the new parties reflected the
changed conditions of the Jacksonian era. Democrats and Whigs alike were
challenged to respond to the relentless westward expansion of the nation and
the emergence of an industrial economy.
Democrats and Whigs in the Age of Jackson
Issues Supported
Democrats
Whigs
• Local rule
American System:
• Limited government
• A national bank
• Free trade
• Federal funds for internal improvements
• Opportunity for white
males
Major Concerns
• Monopolies
• National bank
• High tariffs
• High land prices
• A protective tariff
• Crime associated with
immigrants
Base of Voter Support
• The South and West • New England and the
Mid-Atlantic states
• Urban workers
• Protestants of English
heritage
• Urban professionals
Jackson's Second Term
After winning reelection in 1832, Jackson moved to destroy the Bank of the
United States.
Pet Banks Jackson attacked the bank by withdrawing all federal funds.
Aided by Secretary of the Treasury Roger Taney, he transferred the funds to
various state banks, which Jackson's critics called "pet banks."
Species Circular As a result of both Jackson's financial policies and feverish speculation in western lands, prices for land and various goods became badly
inflated. Jackson hoped to check the inflationary trend by issuing a presidential
order known as the Specie Circular. It required that all future purchases of federal lands be made in specie (gold and silver) rather than in paper banknotes.
Soon afterward, banknotes lost their value and land sales plummeted. Right
after Jackson left office, a financial crisis-the Panic of 1837-plunged the
nation's economy into a depression.
The Election of 1836
Following the two-term tradition set by his predecessors, Jackson did not seek
a third term. To make sure his policies were carried out even in his retirement,
Jackson persuaded the Democratic Party to nominate his loyal vice president,
Martin Van Buren, who was a master of practical politics.
Fearing defeat, the Whig party adopted the unusual strategy of nominating three
candidates from three different regions. In doing so, the Whigs hoped to throw the
election into the House of Representatives, where each state had one vote in the
selection of the president. The Whig strategy failed, however, as Van Buren took 58
percent of the electoral vote.
President Van Buren and the Panic of 1837
Just as Van Buren took office, the country suffered a financial panic as
one bank after another closed its doors. Jackson's opposition to the
re-chartering of the Bank of the United States was only one of many
causes of the panic and resulting economic depression. But the Whigs
were quick to blame the Democrats for their laissez-faire economics,
which advocated for little federal involvement in the economy.
The "log Cabin and Hard Cider" Campaign of 1840
In the election of 1840, the Whigs were in a strong position to defeat
Van Buren and the Jacksonian Democrats. Voters were unhappy with
the bad state of the economy. In addition, the Whigs were better
organized than the Democrats, and had a popular war hero, William
Henry ''Tippecanoe" Harrison, as their presidential candidate. The
Whigs took campaign hoopla to new heights. To symbolize Harrison's
humble origins, they put log cabins on wheels and paraded them
down the streets of cities and towns. They also passed out hard cider
for voters to drink and buttons and hats to wear. Name-calling as a
propaganda device also marked the 1840 campaign. The Whigs
attacked "Martin Van Ruin" as an aristocrat with a taste for foreign
wines.
A remarkable 78 percent of eligible voters (white males) cast their
ballots. Old "Tippecanoe" and John Tyler of Virginia, a former
states' rights Democrat who joined the Whigs, took 53 percent of the
popular vote and most of the electoral votes in all three sections:
North, South, and West. This election established the Whigs as a
national party.
However, Harrison died of pneumonia less than a month after
taking office, and "His Accidency," John Tyler, became the first vicepresident to succeed to the presidency. President Tyler was not much
of a Whig. He vetoed the Whigs' national bank bills and other
legislation, and favored southern and expansionist Democrats during
the balance of his term (1841-1845). The Jacksonian era was in its
last stage, and came to an end with the Mexican War and the
increased focus on the issue of slavery. (See Chapter 12.)
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: WERE THE JACKSONIANS DEMOCRATIC?
Historians debate whether the election of Jackson in 1828 marked a
revolutionary and democratic turn in American politics. The traditional
view is that Jackson's election began the era of the common man, when
the masses of newly enfranchised voters drove out the entrenched ruling
class and elected one of their own. The Revolution of 1828 was a victory
of the democratic West against the aristocratic East. On the other
hand, 19th-century Whig historians viewed Jackson as a despot whose
appeal to the uneducated masses and "corrupt" spoils system threatened
the republic.
In the 1940s, the historian Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. argued that Jacksonian democracy relied as much on the support of eastern urban
workers as on western farmers. Jackson's coalition of farmers and
workers fore- shadowed a similar coalition that elected another
Democratic president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, in the 1930s.
Contemporary historians have used quantitative analysis of voting
returns to show that increased voter participation was evident in local
elections years before 1828 and did not reach a peak until the election
of 1840, an election that the Whig party won. Some historians argue
that religion and ethnicity were more important than economic class in
shap- ing votes. For example, Catholic immigrants objected to the
imposition of the Puritan moral code (e.g., temperance) by the native
Protestants.
Recent historians see Jackson's popularity in the 1830s as a reaction of
subsistence farmers and urban workers against threatening forces of
economic change. A capitalist, or market, economy was taking shape
in the early years of the 19th century. This market revolution divided
the electorate. Some, including many Whigs, supported the changes
giving a greater role for enterprising businessmen. Jackson's veto of
the bankcaptured popular fears about the rise of capitalism.
K EY TERMS BY TH EM E
Migration (ID, PEO)
Common Man (ID/POL)
Indian Removal Act
(1830)
Cherokee Nation v.
Georgia
Worchester v. Georgia
Cherokee trail of tears
common man
universal white male
suffrage
party nominating
convention
"King Caucus"
popular election of
president
Economics (WXT)
Bank of the United
States
Nicholas Biddle
Roger Taney
"pet banks"
Specie Circular
Panic of 1837
Martin Van Buren
Jacksonian Politics
(POL)
Anti-Masonic party
Workingmen's party
popular campaigning
spoils system
rotation in office
John Quincy Adams
Henry Clay
"corrupt bargain"
Tariff of 1828; "tariff
of abominations"
Revolution of 1828
Andrew Jackson
role of the president
Peggy Eaton affair
states' rights
nullification crisis
Webster-Hayne debate
John C. Calhoun
Proclamation to the
People of South
Carolina
two-party system
Democrats
Whigs
"log cabin and hard
cider" campaign
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Questions 1-3 refer to the excerpt below.
''We hold . . . that on their separation from the Crown of Great Britain, the
several colonies became free and independent States, each enjoying the separate and independent right of self-government; and that no authority can be
exercised over them . . . but by their consent . . . It is equally true, that the
Constitution of the United States is a compact formed between the several
States . . . that the government created by it is a joint agency of the States,
appointed to execute the powers enumerated and granted by that instrument;
that all its acts not intentionally authorized are of themselves essentially null
and void, and that the States have the right . . . to pronounce, in the last resort,
authoritative judgment on the usurpations of the Federal Government . . . Such
we deem to be inherent rights of the States."
-John C. Calhoun, statement adopted by a convention
in South Carolina, 1832
1. Which of the following was the immediate cause of the publication of the
statement in this excerpt?
(A) The election of Andrew Jackson
(B) The decision to halt to slave importation
(C) A Supreme Court decision on states' rights
(D) An increase in the tariff passed by Congress
2. As described in the excerpt, which individual or body makes the final
decision on whether a law is valid in a state?
(A) Congress
(B) President
(C) States
(D) Supreme Court
3. Which of the following is or are most similar to the statement in the
excerpt?
(A) Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
(B) Monroe Doctrine
(C) Specie Circular
(D) Tallmadge Amendment
Questions 4-6 refer to the excerpt below.
"It is to be regretted that the rich and powerful too often bend the acts of government to their selfish purposes. Distinctions in society will always exist
under every just government . . . In the full enjoyment of the gifts of heaven
and the fruits of superior industry, economy, and virtue, every man is equally
entitled to protection by law.
"But when the laws undertake to add to these natural and just advantages
artificial distinctions . . . to make the rich richer . . . the humble members of
society-the farmers, mechanics, and laborers-. . . have a right to complain
of the injustices of their government.
"There are no necessary evils in government . . . If it would confine itself
to equal protection . . . the rich and the poor; it would be an unqualified blessing. In the act before me there seems to be a wide and unnecessary departure
from these just principles."
-President Andrew Jackson, Message vetoing the Bank, July 10, 1832
4. Based on the excerpt, which of the following groups was President
Jackson trying to help?
(A) Common individuals
(B) Landowners
(C) Small bankers
(D) War veterans
5. Which of the following groups provided the greatest support for the
Jackson's veto of the Bank?
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Manufacturers
Nativists
Southerners
Westerners
6. President Jackson's veto of the Bank bill would contribute most
significantly to
(A) lower interest rates
(B) a financial panic
(C) increased land sales
(D) Clay's political support
Questions 7-8 refer to the excerpt below.
"The framers of our excellent Constitution . . . wisely judged that the less government interferes with private pursuits the better for the general prosperity . . .
"I cannot doubt that on this as on all similar occasions the federal government will find its agency most conducive to the security and happiness of the
people when limited to the exercise of its conceded powers . . .
"The difficulties and distresses of the times, though unquestionably great,
are limited in their extent, and cannot be regarded as affecting the permanent
prosperity of the nation. Arising in a great degree from the transactions of foreign and domestic commerce . . . The great agricultural interest has in many
parts of the country suffered comparatively little . . .
"The proceeds of our great staples will soon furnish the means of liquidating debts at home and abroad, and contribute equally to the revival of
commercial activity and the restoration of commercial credit."
-Martin Van Buren, "Against Government Aid for
Business Losses," 1837
7. Van Buren believed that the strength of the American economy was
based on
(A) the banking system
(B) the manufacturing sector
(C) farmers and planters
(D) the Specie Circular
8. Which of the following individuals would be most critical of Van Buren's
economic policy as presented in this excerpt?
(A) Andrew Jackson
(B) Roger Taney
(C) Robert Hayne
(D) Henry Clay
SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS
Briefly answer the q uestions i n com pl ete sentences. A thesis is not
required.
Question 1isbased on the following excerpts.
"He [Jackson] believed that removal was the Indian's only salvation
against certain extinction . . .
"Not that the President was motivated by concerns for the Indians . . .
Andrew Jackson was motivated principally by two considerations: first
. . .military safety
. . . that Indians must not occupy areas that might jeopardize the
defense of this nation ; and second . . . the principal that all persons
residing within states are subject to the jurisdiction and laws of those
states.
"Would it have been worse had the Indians remained in the East?
Jackson thought so. He said that they would 'disappear and be
forgotten.' One thing does seem certain: the Indians would have been
forced to yield to state laws and white society. Indian Nations per se
would have been obliterated and possibly Indian civilization with
them."
-Robert V. Remini, historian, Andrew
Jackson and the Course of
American Freedom, 1998
"The Georgia legislature passed a law extending the state's jurisdiction
. . . over the Cherokees living within the state . . . Georgia's action
forced the President's hand. He must see to it that a removal policy long
covertly pursued by the White House would now be enacted into law
by Congress . . .
"Jackson as usual spoke publicly in a tone of friendship and
concern for Indian welfare. . . . He, as President, could be their friend
only if they removed beyond the Mississippi, where they should have a
"land of their own, which they shall possess as long as Grass grows or
water runs. . . .
"Aharsh policy was nevertheless quickly put in place . . .
"It is abundantly clear that Jackson and his administration were
determined to permit the extension of state sovereignty because it would
result in the harassment of Indians, powerless to resist, by speculators
and intruders hungry for Indian Land."-Anthony F. C. Wallace, historian,
The Long, Bitter Trail:
Andrew Jackson and the Indians, 1993
1. Using the excerpt, answer a, b, and c.
a) Briefly explain the main point of Excerpt 1.
b) Briefly explain the main point of Excerpt 2.
c) Provide ONE piece of evidence from the mid-19th century that
is not included in the excerpts and explain how it supports the
interpretation in either excerpt.
Question 3. Answer a, b, and c.
a) Briefly explain which ONE of the following best supports this
statement: "The duties of all public officers are .. . so plain and
simple that more is lost by the long continuance of men in office than
is generally to be gained by their experience."
• political party conventions
• rotation in office
• spoils system
b) Contrast your choice against ONE of the other options demonstrating
why that option is not as good as your choice.
c) Briefly explain how ONE of the following people would either support
or question this statement.
• John Quincy Adams
• John C. Calhoun
• Martin van Buren
Question 4. Answer a, b, and c.
a) Choose ONE of the actions listed below, and explain how this best
demonstrates the argument that the Age of Jackson saw a shift of
political power from the ruling elite to the common man.
• popular election of the President
• rotation in office
• universal male suffrage
b) Contrast your choice against ONE of the other options, demonstrating
why that option is not as good as your choice.
c) Briefly explain ONE critical response to the political changes during
this period.
THINK AS A HISTORIAN: STATEMENTS ABOUT CAUSATION
Statements that express causation often use words such as cause,
effect, because, hence, and result. Which TWO of these statements
best express causation?
1. Because of Jackson's Specie Circular, banknotes lost their value.
2. Jackson's threat to use force and his willingness to compromise
on the tariff persuaded the states' rights advocates to back down.
3. Jackson charged that Adams and Clay made a "corrupt bargain."
4. The Anti-Masonic party viewed the Masons as a secret elite.