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Chapter 7: Moral Development, Values, and Religion
Outline
•
•
•
Domains of Moral Development
– Moral Thought
– Moral Behavior
– Moral Feeling
– Moral Personality
Contexts of Moral Development
– Parenting
– Schooling
Values, Religion, and Cults
– Values
– Religion and Spirituality
– Cults
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Domains of Moral Development
•
Moral development involves the distinction between
what is right and wrong, what matters to people, and
what people should do in their interactions with others.
• First, how do adolescents reason or think about rules for
ethical conduct?
• Second, how do adolescents actually behave in moral
circumstances?
• Third, how do adolescents feel about moral matters?
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Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought
• How do adolescents think about standards of right
and wrong?
• Kohlberg (1958, 1976, 1986) crafted a major theory
of how adolescents think about right and wrong.
• He proposed that moral development is based
primarily on moral reasoning and unfolds in a series
of stages.
• A key concept in understanding moral development
is internalization, the developmental change from
behavior that is externally controlled to behavior
that is controlled by internal standards and
principles.
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Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Thought
• Kohlberg’s Stages
• Hypothesized three levels of moral development.
• Each level is characterized by two stages.
• A key concept in understanding moral development is
internalization.
• The developmental change from behavior that is
externally controlled to behavior that is controlled
by internal standards and principles.
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Domains of Moral Development
Kohlberg’s Three Levels and Six Stages of Moral Development
Fig. 7.1
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Domains of Moral Development
•
Kohlberg’s Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning
– Lowest level.
– No internalization of moral values.
– Controlled by external rewards and punishments.
– Stage 1. Heteronomous morality
• Moral thinking is often tied to punishment.
– Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and
exchange
• Individuals pursue their own interests but also let
others do the same.
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Domains of Moral Development
•
Kohlberg’s Level 2: Conventional Reasoning
– Internalization is intermediate.
– Individuals abide by certain standards (internal), but
they are the standards of others (external), such as
parents or the laws of society.
– Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations,
relationships, and interpersonal conformity
• Individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others.
• Children and adolescents often adopt their parents’ moral
standards.
– Stage 4. Social systems morality
• Understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty.
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Domains of Moral Development
•
Kohlberg’s Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning
– The highest level.
– Morality is completely internalized and is not based
on others’ standards.
– Personal moral code.
– Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights
• Values, rights, and principles transcend the law.
– Stage 6. Universal ethical principles
• Highest stage.
• The person has developed a moral standard based on
universal human rights.
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Domains of Moral Development
Moral Reasoning at Kohlberg’s Stages in Response to the “Heinz and the
Druggist” Story
Fig. 7.2
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Domains of Moral Development
Age and the Percentage of Individuals at Each Kohlberg Stage
Fig. 7.3
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Domains of Moral Development
•
Influences on Kohlberg’s Stages
–
–
–
–
Cognitive development.
Exposure to appropriate social experiences.
Peer interaction.
Parent-child experiences.
• In recent years, there has been an increasing emphasis on the
role of parenting in moral development (Thompson, 2009).
•
Why Is Kohlberg’s Theory Important for Understanding
Moral Development in Adolescence?
– It tells the developmental story of people trying to understand
things like society, rules and roles, and institutions and
relationships.
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Domains of Moral Development
• Kohlberg’s Critics
– Moral Thought and Moral Behavior.
• Moral reasons can always be a shelter for immoral behavior.
– Assessment of Moral Reasoning
• Some developmentalists fault the quality of Kohlberg’s
research and stress that more attention should be paid to
the way moral development is assessed (Thoma, 2006).
• The hypothetical moral dilemmas posed in Kohlberg’s
stories do not match the moral dilemmas many children
and adults face in their everyday lives (Walker, de Vries, &
Trevethan, 1987; Yussen, 1977).
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Domains of Moral Development
Actual Moral Dilemmas Generated by Adolescents
Fig. 7.4
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Domains of Moral Development
• Kohlberg’s Critics (Continued)
– Culture and Moral Development.
• Although Kohlberg’s approach does capture much of the
moral reasoning voiced in various cultures around the
world there are some important moral concepts in specific
cultures that his approach misses or misconstrues (Miller,
2007).
– Gender and the Care Perspective.
• Carol Gilligan (1982, 1992, 1996; Gilligan & others, 2003)
argues that Kohlberg’s theory of moral development does
not adequately reflect relationships and concern for others.
– A justice perspective is a moral perspective that focuses on the
rights of the individual.
– A care perspective views people in terms of their connectedness with
others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships
with others, and concern for others.
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Domains of Moral Development
• Kohlberg’s Critics (Continued)
– Gender and the Care Perspective (Continued).
• According to Gilligan, Kohlberg underplayed the care
perspective.
• Gilligan believes that this de-emphasis may be because
Kohlberg was a male, most of his research was with males
rather than females, and he used male responses as a
model for his theory.
• However, experts have now concluded that there is no
evidence to support Gilligan’s claim that Kohlberg
downplayed females’ moral thinking (Hyde, 2005, 2007;
Walker, 2006).
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Domains of Moral Development
•
•
Social Conventional Reasoning
– Focuses on thoughts about social consensus and convention.
– Some theorists emphasize that Kohlberg did not adequately
do this (Smetana, 2006).
Moral Reasoning
– Emphasizes ethical issues.
– Conventional rules are created to control behavioral
irregularities and maintain the social system.
– Conventional rules are arbitrary and subject to individual
judgment.
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Domains of Moral Development
•
Moral Reasoning (Continued)
– Moral rules are not arbitrary nor are they created by social
consensus.
– Moral rules are obligatory, widely accepted, and somewhat
impersonal (Turiel, 2006).
– Moral judgments involve concepts of justice, whereas social
conventional judgments are concepts of social organization.
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Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Behavior
– What are the basic processes that behaviorists
believe are responsible for adolescents’ moral
behavior?
– How do social cognitive theorists view
adolescents’ moral development?
– What is the nature of prosocial behavior?
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Domains of Moral Development
• Basic Processes and Moral Behavior.
– What are the basic processes that behaviorists
believe are responsible for adolescents’ moral
behavior?
• Reinforcement, punishment, and imitation.
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Domains of Moral Development
• Social Cognitive Theory and Moral Behavior.
– How do social cognitive theorists view adolescents’
moral development?
– Emphasizes a distinction between adolescents’
moral competence and moral performance.
• Moral competence: The ability to produce moral
behaviors.
• Moral performance: Performing those behaviors in specific
situations.
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Domains of Moral Development
• Prosocial and Moral Behavior.
– What is the nature of prosocial behavior?
• Altruism:
Unselfish interest in helping another person.
• Forgiveness: Occurs when an injured person releases the
injurer from possible retaliation.
• Although adolescents have often been described as
egocentric and selfish, adolescent acts of altruism are
plentiful (Carlo, 2006).
• Adolescent females view themselves as more prosocial
and empathic, and also engage in more prosocial behavior
than males (Eisenberg & others, 2009).
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Domains of Moral Development
• Prosocial and Moral Behavior (Continued).
– Forgiveness
• An aspect of prosocial behavior.
• Occurs when the injured person releases the injurer
from possible behavioral retaliation.
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Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Feeling
– Psychoanalytic Theory
• Ego ideal:
The component of the superego that involves
standards approved by the parents.
• Conscience: The component of the superego that involves
behaviors disapproved by the parents.
– Erik Erikson (1970) outlined three stages of moral
development:
• Specific moral learning in childhood.
• Ideological concerns in adolescence.
• Ethical consolidation in adulthood.
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Domains of Moral Development
• Empathy
– Experienced as an emotional state.
– It often has a cognitive component—the ability to discern
another’s inner psychological states, or what has been
previously called perspective taking.
– At about 10 to 12 years of age, individuals develop an empathy
for people who live in unfortunate circumstances (Damon,
1988).
– Children’s concerns are no longer limited to the feelings of
particular persons in situations they directly observe.
– Adolescents’ empathic behavior varies considerably.
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Domains of Moral Development
• The Contemporary Perspective
– Many developmentalists believe that both positive
feelings, such as empathy, sympathy, admiration,
and self-esteem, and negative feelings, such as
anger, outrage, shame, and guilt, contribute to
adolescents’ moral development (Damon, 1995; Eisenberg
& others, 2009).
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Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Personality
– Thoughts, behavior, and feelings can all be involved
in an individual’s moral personality.
– Three aspects of moral personality that have
recently been emphasized are:
1. Moral identity
2. Moral character
3. Moral exemplars
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Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Identity
– Individuals have a moral when moral notions and
commitments are central to one’s life (Blasi, 2005).
– Augusto Blasi (2005) argued that developing a moral
identity and commitment is influenced by three
important virtues:
1. Willpower (self-control)
2. Integrity
3. Moral desire
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Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Character
– Blasi’s (2005) ideas have much in common with
James Rest’s (1995) view that moral character has
not been adequately emphasized in moral
development.
– Moral character presupposes that the person has
set moral goals and that achieving those goals
involves the commitment to act in accord with those
goals.
– Among the moral virtues people emphasize are
honesty, truthfulness, trustworthiness, care,
compassion, thoughtfulness, and
conscientiousness (Walker, 2002, p. 74).
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Domains of Moral Development
• Moral Exemplars
– Are people who have lived exemplary lives.
– Have a moral personality, identity, character, and
set of virtues that reflect moral excellence and
commitment (Walker & Frimer, 2009a,b).
– The moral exemplars “were more agreeable, more
advanced in their faith and moral reasoning
development, further along in forming an adult
identity, and more willing to enter into close
relationships” (Matsuba & Walker, 2004, p. 413).
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Contexts of Moral Development
• Parental Discipline
– In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory:
• Moral development are practices that instill the
fears of punishment and of losing parental love.
These include:
– Love withdrawal
– Power assertion
– Induction (Hoffman, 1970)
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Contexts of Moral Development
•
Parenting Moral Children and Adolescents.
– A recent research view concluded that, in general, moral
children tend to have parents who (Eisenberg & Valiente, 2002,
p. 134):
• Are warm and supportive rather than punitive.
• Use inductive discipline.
• Provide opportunities for the children to learn about others’
perspectives and feelings.
• Involve children in family decision making and in the process of
thinking about moral decisions.
• Model moral behaviors and thinking themselves, and provide
opportunities for their children to do so.
• Provide information about what behaviors are expected and why.
• Foster an internal rather than an external sense of morality.
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Contexts of Moral Development
•
Parenting Moral Children and Adolescents (Continued).
– Recently, an interest has developed in determining which
parenting strategies work best when adolescents are
confronted with situations in which they are exposed to values
outside the home that conflict with parents’ values (Grusec,
2006).
– Two strategies that parents often use:
• Cocooning
– When parents protect adolescents from exposure to
deviant behavior, and thus the temptation to engage in
negative moral behavior.
• Pre-arming
– Anticipating conflicting values and preparing
adolescents to handle them.
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Contexts of Moral Development
• Schools
– The Hidden Curriculum
• Conveyed by the moral atmosphere that is a part of every
school.
– Character Education
• Teaching students a basic moral literacy to prevent them
from engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to
themselves or others (Arthur, 2008; Carr, 2008).
– Values Clarification
• Helping people to clarify what is important to them, what is
worth working for, and what purpose their lives are to
serve.
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Contexts of Moral Development
• Schools
– Cognitive Moral Education
• A concept based on the belief that students should
learn to value things like democracy and justice as
their moral reasoning develops.
– Service Learning
• A form of education that promotes social
responsibility and service to the community.
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Contexts of Moral Development
• Cheating
– Among the reasons students give for cheating
include the pressure for getting high, time
pressures, poor teaching, and lack of interest
(Stephens, 2008).
– A long history of research also implicates the power
of the situation in determining whether students
cheat or not (Hartshorne & May, 1928–1930; Murdock, Miller, &
Kohlbhardt, 2004; Vandehey, Diekhoff, & LaBeff, 2007).
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Contexts of Moral Development
• An Integrative Approach
• Encompasses both the reflective moral thinking and
commitment to justice advocated in Kohlberg’s
approach.
• Developing a particular moral character as advocated
in the character education approach (Narvaez, 2006,
2008).
• Another integrative moral education program that is
being implemented is called integrative ethical
education (Holter & Narvaez, 2008).
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Contexts of Moral Development
• An Integrative Approach (Continued)
• Another integrative moral education program that is being
implemented is called integrative ethical education (Holter &
Narvaez, 2008; Narvaez, 2006, 2008; Narvaez & others, 2004).
• The goal is to turn moral novices into moral experts by
educating students about four ethical skills that moral
experts possess:
•
•
•
•
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Ethical sensitivity
Ethical judgment
Ethical focus
Ethical action
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Contexts of Moral Development
Ethical Skills in Integrative Ethical Education
Fig. 7.5
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Values, Religion, and Cults
• Values
• Beliefs and attitudes about the way things should be.
• Involve what is important to us.
• Reflect the intrapersonal dimension of morality.
• Over the past three decades, traditional-aged college
students have shown an increased concern for
personal well-being and a decreased concern for the
well-being of others, especially for the
disadvantaged. (Pryor & others, 2007).
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Values, Religion, and Cults
Changing Freshman Life Goals, 1968 to 2007
Fig. 7.6
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Values, Religion, and Cults
• Religion and Spirituality
• Religious and spiritual issues are important to
adolescents and emerging adults (Benson,
Roehlkepartain, & Hong, 2008; Good & Willoughby, 2008;
King & Roeser, 2009; Lerner, Roeser, & Phelps, 2009).
• Analysis of the World Values Survey of 18- to 24-year
olds revealed that emerging adults in less developed
countries were more likely to be religious than their
counterparts in more developed countries (Lippman &
Keith, 2006).
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Religion and Spirituality
Developmental Changes in Religiousness from 14 to 25 Years of Age
Fig. 7.7
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Values, Religion, and Cults
•
The Positive Role of Religion and Spirituality in
Adolescents’ and Emerging Adults’ Lives
• Linked with positive outcomes for adolescents and emerging
adults (King & Benson, 2009).
• Plays a role in adolescents’ health and whether they engage in
problem behaviors (King & Roeser, 2009).
• Many religious adolescents and emerging adults also
internalize their religion’s message about caring and concern
for people (Ream & Savin-Williams, 2003).
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Values, Religion, and Cults
•
•
•
Developmental Changes
• Many adolescents and emerging adults may question
what their own religious beliefs truly are.
Cognitive Changes
• Many of the cognitive changes thought to influence
religious development involve Piaget’s cognitive
developmental theory.
Erikson’s Theory
• Identity development becomes a central focus.
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Values, Religion, and Cults
•
Religious Socialization and Parenting
•
•
•
•
Introduce certain beliefs to children.
Ensure that they will carry on a religious tradition.
Adults tend to adopt the religious teachings of their upbringing.
If a religious change or reawakening occurs, it is most likely to
take place during adolescence.
• It is important to consider the quality of the parent-adolescent
relationship and whether mothers or fathers are more influential
(Granqvist & Dickie, 2006; Ream & Savin-Williams, 2003).
• Adolescents who have a positive relationship with their parents
or are securely attached to them are likely to adopt their
parents’ religious affiliation.
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Values, Religion, and Cults
•
Religiousness and Sexuality in Adolescence and
Emerging Adulthood.
• Most churches discourage premarital sex.
• Attendees likely to hear messages about abstaining from sex.
• Involvement of adolescents and emerging adults in religious
organizations also enhances the probability that they will
become friends with adolescents who have restrictive attitudes
toward premarital sex.
• Religion is a pervasive influence throughout the world.
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Values, Religion, and Cults
•
Cults
• Defined in various ways:
• “Dangerous institutions that cause severe emotional harm.”
• “Marginal and deviant groups.”
• “Fringe, often new, religious movements.”
• Described as being controlled by a charismatic leader:
• Fostering the idea that there is only one correct set of beliefs and
practices.
• Demanding unquestionable loyalty and obedience.
• Using mind-control techniques.
• Using deception and deceit in recruiting and interacting with the
outside world.
• Exploiting members’ labor and finances (Galanter, 2000).
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Values, Religion, and Cults
•
What is the difference between a cult and a church, a
service club, or groups like Alcoholics Anonymous?
• The ultimate goal of the group (Cialdini & Rhoad, 1999).
• Established religions and altruistic movements focus outward,
attempting to better the lives of members as well as nonmembers.
• Cults direct their energies inward rather than outward, serving
their own purposes and those of the cult’s leader.
• Religions and altruistic movements usually do not involve
overbearing authoritarian control by a leader, the use of
deception in recruiting members, coercive influence
techniques, or the replacement of a recruit’s identity with a new
identity that would not have been freely chosen by the
individual before joining the group.
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Values, Religion, and Cults
•
Who joins cults?
• For the most part, normal, average people (Oser, Scarlett, &
Bucher, 2006).
• Approximately two-thirds of cult members are psychologically
healthy individuals who come from normal families (Cialdini &
Rhoad, 1999).
• The remaining one-third often have depressive symptoms, in
many cases linked with personal loss such as a death in the
family, a failed romantic relationship, or career problems.
• Only about 5 percent of cult members have major psychological
problems before joining the cult.
• Cults prefer intelligent, productive individuals who can
contribute money and talent to “the cause,” whatever that might
be.
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Values, Religion, and Cults
•
Who joins cults? (Continued)
• It is possible that timing rather than personality is the
determining factor in vulnerability to cults.
• Many individuals who become cult members are in a
transitional phase of life.
• Moved to a new city.
• Lost a job.
• Dropped out of school.
• Given up traditional religion as personally irrelevant.
•
•
Cults promise to fulfill most of a person’s individual needs and to
make his or her life safe, healthy, caring, and predictable.
Cult leaders offer followers simple or predictable paths to
happiness.
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51
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
•
Handbook of Motor and Character Education edited by Larry Nucci
and Darcia Narvaez (2008). New York: Routledge.
A number of leading experts describe their views of many aspects of
moral education.
•
Cults by Marc Galanter. (1999) New York: Oxford University Press.
This book explores many aspects of cults, including their social
psychological characteristics.
•
“Moral Cognitions and Prosocial Responding in Adolescence” by
Nancy Eisenberg, Amanda Morris, Brenda McDaniel, and Tracy
Spinrad (2009).
In R.M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of Adolescent
Psychology (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.
Leading experts provide an up-to-date look at theory and research on
moral development in adolescence.
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52
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
•
Spiritual Development edited by Peter Benson, Eugene
Roehlkepartain, and Kathryn Hong (2008). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Leading scholars describe a range of topics on spiritual
development in youth.
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53
E-LEARNING TOOLS
To help you master the material in this
chapter, visit the Online Learning Center
for Adolescence, 13th edition at:
http://www.mhhe.com/santrocka13e
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