AP Biology

• Identical cells (clones)
• Advantages:
– Reproduce without a mate
– Lots of babies and fast too!
– No energy used for maintaining a Repro system or hormones.
– Great in a stable and favorable environment
.
• Types:
– Fission: Amoeba/ Bacteria separated an organism into 2 cells
– Budding: Hydra, Sea Anemone, Grow a buddy off your side
– Fragmentation: &regeneration: Sponges, starfish, planaria
– Parthenogenesis : development of an egg without fertilization: honeybees, lizards, et.

• Testis (sl)/ Testes (pl) - olive size (1-1.5in)
– Divided into lobules. Male Gonads
• Lobules contain 1-4 seminiferous tubules
– Between seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells ( Leydig cells )
• Interstitial cells produce androgens = testosterone
– Sperm leave S.F.T. to go into epididymus .(mobilizes sperm)

• Vas Deferens
– Runs up epididymus into pelvic cavity
– Arches over bladder
– Empties into ejaculatory duct.
• Ejaculatory duct( ejac to shoot forth)
– Passes through prostate gland
– Merges with urethra
– Moves sperm through peristaltic waves.
Pregnancy & Reproductive
Vasectomy

• Urethra
– Sperm are ejaculated through it
– Urine and sperm can’t travel at the same time
• Bladder sphincter constricts when sperm ejaculates.
• Seminal Vesicle
– 60% of semen
– Thick and Yellow
• Fructose Sugar nourishes
Cool Factoid: Sperm take
5 minutes to get to the ovary when ejaculated.
• Vitamin C activates sperm
• Prostaglandin (stimulates uterine contraction)
– Excretes into the ejaculatory duct

• Ovary.
– Floats freely. Contains and matures eggs.
– Part of the Endocrine system. Secretes
Estrogen.
• Falopian tube.
– No contact between Ovary and Fallopian tubes.
When ovary expels the Oocyte the fimbriae or ends of the fallopian tube capture it. Eggs can get lost here in the peritoneal cavity
Carried by peristalsis by cilia that line the fallopian tube. (3-4 Days)
Ovulation

• Uterus
• Receives, retains and nourishes egg.
• Pear shaped before pregnancy
• 3 layers
– Endometrium – Egg implants here. Sloughs off monthly
– Myometrium- middle layer- smooth muscle= contractions
– Epimetrium- outer layer
• Vagina: birth canal.
– Labor and delivery.
– Cervix: mouth of the uterus.

• Day 1-5 Mensus. Lasts 3-5 days. Blood loss is
¼ to ½ cup. *Iron pills important.
• Endometrium, glands, and blood supply increase. Estrogen (produced by follicles on the ovary) and LH peak day 12 + 13 =
• Ovulation Day 14 . Follicle is like a boil on the ovary. LH causes it to rupture and the egg is released= ovulation. Used follicle becomes the
Corpus Luteum= secretes progesterone.
Menstrual
Cycle
Explained

• The four phases
– Follicular phase : Follicles grow in overies and secrete estrogen in response of FSH from anterior pituitary (menopause moment)
– Ovulation: Secondary oocyte (2n) ruptures in response to Luteinizing hormone.
– Luteal Phase: Corpus luteum forms and secretes estrogen and progesterone: thickens endometrium and uterus.
– Menstration : monthly shedding

• Positive Feedback : Estrogen released in the follicle state releases LH from the anterior pituitary. When ovulation has occurred the process is completed and stops.
• Negative Feedback: In the Luteal phase the corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone, causes the hypothalamus and pituitary to shut off inhibiting LH and
FSH.

• Advantages of sexual reproduction: variation
– Crossover
– The Law of Segregation
– The Law of Assortment

• The making of sperm- begins at puberty.
– LH causes the interstitial cells to produce testosterone.
– The seminiferous tubules are matured with testosterone & FSH.
• Spermatogonium (2n) divides by mitosis to produce primary spermatocytes (2n)
• Meiosis 1 occurs producing secondary spermatocyte. Meiosis 2 = 4 spermatids (n)
Spermatogenesis animation

• Eggs= ova. Begins in the female embryo.
• Oogonium cell (2n) makes primary oocytes (2n) through mitosis
• Meiosis 1 (FSH) stimulates) makes secondary oocytes.
• Meiosis (II) begins in fertilization.
• 1 egg, 3 polar bodies.
OOgenesis
• Starts prior to birth, ends at fertilization

• Fusion of sperm and ovum nuclei
– Begins with Acrosome Reaction
• The Acrosome (sperm head) releases hydrolytic enzymes that penetrate egg coating
• Once sperm is bound to the egg receptors- no other sperm can enter.
– Acrosome Reaction sets up the Signal
Trasnduction Pathway
Conception
• Large Amounts of Ca++ released
• Cortical Reaction : Ca++ causes the vitelline membrane to become a hard fertilization envelope
• Rise in Ca++ Causes egg to develop.

• Development of an unfertilized egg through electrical stimulation or injections of Ca++
• Natural Parthenogenesis occurs in
Drone Honeybees (unfertilized eggs  haploid males/ drones), and some lizards and sharks
Girls Rule

• Three stages:
– Cleavage: Mitotic and forms a blastula
(blastomeres = cells, blastocoel = fluid)
• Protosomes : spiral and determinant cleavage
– Determinant= each cell is destined to become X, without which a complete embryo can not form.
• Deuterostopmes: radial and indeterminate (stemcells)
– Gastrulation
– Organogenesis

• Gastrulation: blastula forms a blastopore.
– Protostomes: Mouth
– Deuterostomes: Anus
• Archenteron cavity/ primitive gut is formed at the blastopore.
• The three layers
Gastrulation
Animation
– Ectoderm : skin and nerves
– Endoderm : viscera, lungs, liver, digestive organs
– Mestoderm: Muscle, blood, bones (sponges and cnidarians make a mesoglea instead)
Actual Footage

• Organogenesis: cells differentiate into organs.
– Cells fold, split and cluster (condensation)
• When organ system has been developed the embryo simply increases in size.
Folding

Poles explained
External Fertilization Creates a Vegetal Pole (Yoke) &
Animal Pole (Top) w/ Pigmented Cap which rotates toward point of sperm penetration. A gray crescent appears opposite the penetration point forming the blastopore.
• Involution, when cells stream into the blastopore over the dorsal lip .
• Epibolic movement creates the archenteron from the blastocoel.
• Organogenesis: notochord (spine), & neural tube
(CNS)
• Finally metamorphosis turns tadpole to frog.

• A blastodisk sits on top of the yolk. A primitive streak forms (no gray crescent) cell involution creates the archenteron .
• Yolk reduces with cleavage and gastrulating.
• Four embryo membranes:
– Yolk sac: encloses the yolk
– Amnion: encloses the embryo in amniotic fluid
– Chorion : membrane under shell for diffusion of gas.
– Allantois : Like the placenta. Gas exhange and holds uric acid and nitrogenous waste.

Hans Spemann
• Cytoplasmic Determinants : Watch the movie, it’s the best, but different cells become different things depending on their polar orientation.
• The Gray Crescent: Hans Spemann explains its important & calls the dorsal lip the Primary
Organizer .
– Embryonic Induction One group of embryonic cells influences another.
– Hox Genes/ homeotic, homeobox genes = master genes responsible for anatomical structures. Ie where the head and eyes go.
Hox Revisited