History and Timeline
of English
From the Celtic Roots to the
Beginning of the Renaissance
History and Timeline of English
• 5000-55 BCE
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http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/a
ncient/secrets-stonehenge.html
• 2000 BCE
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Barbaric Tribes of Britain:
Stonehenge People
Celtic tribes from Europe, arrived
speaking Indo-European languages.
The Celts built Maiden Castle at
Dorset. They were not the fierce
barbarians Caesar later made them
out to be, but fairly sophisticated
tribal peoples who through the
centuries, challenged even Rome.
They had written language,
although they did not write down
their religious beliefs. They honed
artistic skills in metallurgy, and had
a social structure that included a
caste of intellectual-spiritualists:
the Druids.
History and Timeline of English
• 55 – 54 BCE
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Cymbeline, a wonderful underrated
Romance by Shakespeare, is about
a legendary Celtic king of the
British Isle.*
Because the Celts were so feared,
Julius Caesar went to Briton twice,
to make a name for himself by
conquering it. He left a written
account to promote his valor,
although he was not too successful.
He was put off by fierce, bluefaced people who had armor,
exquisite swords, chain mail,
horses and chariots. He finally
attained promise of a tribute from
chieftains, and left, naming the
place, “Britannia.”
History and Timeline of English
43 BCE
• Emperor Claudius
took up where Caesar,
and more recently,
Caligula, left off. He
so feared the Britons,
and their Druid priests,
that he actually
brought in elephants to
establish the Roman
colony at Colchester!
History and Timeline of English
60 CE
• The Romans later, under Nero,
met fierce resistance by Iceni
tribes, united under Queen
Boudicca. When she went to
meet with Roman patricians to
protest the enslavement of her
people, the Romans flogged her
and raped her daughters.
• Under Boudicca, the Iceni,
along with other tribes, untied
to sack the established Roman
towns of Colchester and
Lincoln, and burned the newly
established Londinium, a
trading port, to the ground.
History and Timeline of English
200 – 383 CE
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Eventually Rome takes over.
This is the flowering of Londinium.
A totally great place! It’s the
BOMB! Lincoln, Rochester and
Bath (Aquae Sulis) are also Roman
cities that were incredibly
advanced in technology and
architecture.
The Romans introduced: walled
cities, roads, glass, tile, trading,
central heating, upholstery,
schools, money, knives and spoons,
lamp oil and candlesticks, mirrors,
make up, perfume, jewelry, pens
and ink, paper, pottery and games.
History and Timeline of English
200 – 383 CE
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They also brought: wine, carpets,
spices, olive oil, sculpture, and
sophistication in the arts,
philosophy, engineering, literacy,
government, commerce and
medicine.
The Romans, of course, spoke
Latin, which was not the language
of the people: The people spoke
Celtic and the Anglo, Saxon and
Jute languages of the army, which
were composed of mostly
Germanic tribes.
History and Timeline of English
200 – 383 CE
• The Roman army was the
most advanced army in the
world. Aside from the
technological
developments, they
developed advancements
in medicine: commonly
used surgical staples were
developed by Roman
doctors.
History and Timeline of English
383 – 600
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Hadrian’s Wall, built initially to
protect Roman Britain from
invasions by Picts and Scots, was
overrun repeatedly by these tribes.
The Romans empire collapsed and
the Romans officially left England
in 383. By 450, Rome’s presence is
over. For 200 years, the cities were
left to go fallow, and the remaining
inhabitants to fend for themselves.
The Anglos, Saxons, and Jutes
came to live in Briton. These were
friends and relations of the Roman
soldiers, who were not speaking
Latin.
History and Timeline of English
383 – 600
Exquisitely crafted Anglo Saxon runes depict
the Norse character Weland the Smithy,
referenced in Beowulf (450-455) on Franks
Casket (also called the Auzon casket) at the
British Museum. The casket is created of
whale bone and depicts scenes from the
Bible, as well as from Norse, Roman and
Celtic myths -- and also depicts the historical
uprising of Jews against Romans.
• These new immigrants assimilated
nicely into the cultural blend:
Germanic descendants of former
Roman soldiers, Britain-born
Romans, Gauls, and Celts who had
not fled to the hinterlands of
Scotland, Ireland and Wales.
• This was the beginning of what is
commonly called “The Dark
Ages”, which in reality is not
entirely devoid of culture, as we
shall see when we read poetry
created during this time. Even in
the ruins of fallen Rome, there is
eloquent expression of the human
spirit.
History and Timeline of English
383 – 600
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The Lady of Shallot, by John Waterhouse 1888
The Romantic Era is named in reference to
medieval romance stories, which are largely
stories of knights and quests. This painting is
based on a poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson
1809-1892. The poem is loosely based on
Arthurian stories from the Middle Ages.
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While the Dark Ages is the setting of
Arthurian romances, these are actually
composed in Medieval times, depicting a
far-away place where Britain was populated
by fairies, gnomes, witches, warlocks and
other pagan denizens, representing the preChristian world in which Christian Arthur
battles.
The Venerable Bede* (St. Bede) in 731
wrote a history of Britain during this time,
with no mention of a King Arthur. The first
mention of Arthur as a warrior, not king,
was in a text written by another writer,
Nennis of Wales, about 150 years later. The
legendary Arthur remains a mythical figure.
However, there is some truth in the
transference of faith from pagan to
Christianity during the Dark Ages that these
stories depict.
History and Timeline of English
383 – 600
• St. Patrick, who started off his
life as a Roman slave, converted
many to Christianity in Ireland
during the 5th century. But for the
most part, Christianity was very
late to come to Britain.*
• Pope Gregory responded to the
dearth of Christianity in England
by sending a bishop, Augustine
to Canterbury in 597. Canterbury
Cathedral dates back to this time.
Aethelberht, King of Kent
converted to Christianity, but
many other regional kings
resisted. Some tribes emigrated
to France, and settled in what is
now Brittany, where Arthurian
romance was also popular.
History and Timeline of English
600-1066
• The language we call Old
English or Anglo-Saxon
emerged from the meld of
different Germanic language
roots. Latin, which derives from
a different root language, was
retained in Church and legal
documents, but it never was the
language of the people, and is
not a significant part of AngloSaxon.
• The Celtic languages had
largely emigrated, with the
Celtic people to the outskirts of
the islands, chased there by the
Romans long ago.
History and Timeline of English
600-1066
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Gaelic (Irish), Scottish Gaelic and
Welsh are descendants of the
indigenous Celtic language.
Beowulf was composed between 600
and 700 CE and then written down
sometime after 900 CE. The
manuscript for this poem dates back
to the year 1000 or so. It, and a great
body of other poems written in
Anglo Saxon, are testament to the
literary power of the language.
Another famous poem The Seafarer,
is pictured here in the Exeter Book, a
compilation of Anglo-Saxon poetry.*
The Dark Ages were certainly not a
time lacking intellectual or artistic
endeavors.
History and Timeline of English
600 – 1066
Check out the following reading of
the Lord’s Prayer in Anglo
Saxon:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
UQVyol7N1Jo
• Anglo-Saxon was the language
used in the court and in
commerce for the emerging
kingdom of England.
• During the later part of the socalled “Dark Ages,” there was a
revival of culture and
strengthening of country:
Intellectuals and philosophers
abounded. In part this openness
was a result of the relative late
arrival of orthodox Christianity
to control knowledge, and the
persistence of individual pagan
kingships.
History and Timeline of English
600 – 1066
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This was also the time of the Norse
invasions. Vikings, seeking more
land and a better climate, invaded
many European countries. They
were brutal conquerors and
demanded tribute from the
kingdoms they invaded, but they
also settled and assimilated.*
Danish kings ruled in England
during this time: Sweyn Forkbeard
in 1013 and his son Cnut in 1016 –
both delaying and paradoxically
inspiring the spread of Christianity.
Cnut’s sons Harold Harefoot and
Harthacnut were also English
monarchs. *
History and Timeline of English
600 – 1066
• The Viking raids continued from the end of the first
millennium (800) until about the year 1200. The climate in
Europe and the North Atlantic experienced a warming
trend, making the Vikings’ fantastic voyages to the New
World possible, and instead of raiding Europe, they settled
in Greenland and Newfoundland. However, a mini ice age
between 1350 and 1850, made travel more difficult and
left these new settlements isolated, making contact with the
colonies impossible. No one knows for sure if the Norse
inhabitants of these regions were killed by indigenous
people, died on their own, or went native.
History and Timeline of English
600 – 1066
The Vikings left an imprint in English, especially in areas of the
country where they settled. In our language, we recognize the days
Thursday and Friday as named for Thor and Freya, an important god
and goddess in the Norse religion. Other familiar words:
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Lax = salmon
Daela = dale
Fylgja = follower
Berserks = “bear shirt” / Fierce warriors
Orm = worm; snake
Valkyrie = warrior woman (“Choosers of the dead”)
Bjorn = bear
Ulf = wolf
Saga = long story
History and Timeline of English
600 – 1066
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In Europe, the 9th century was the
time of Charlemagne. England was
largely spared his “convert or kill”
method to strengthen the Holy
Roman Empire, and the Celtic and
Germanic religions were spared as
well for the moment.
Alfred the Great inherited the
throne of the kingdom of Wessex
in 871. He unified most of England
into one country, and was known as
“King of the Angles and Saxons”.
His grandson, Aethelstan, was
considered the first English king
when he conquered Northumbria.
History and Timeline of English
600 – 1066
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Alfred, a true polymath whose court
was a center of intellectual activity
and whose country thrived, promoted
law and education. He had Bede’s
History translated from Latin into
Old English. He also commissioned
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, annals
listing events in English history from
the departure of the Romans. This
too was written in the vernacular.
These depictions of a joint history
established a sense of national
identity and codified a national
language for a united country. *
This building of a national ethos
continued later with the historical
credo constructed by Geoffrey of
Monmouth in his Historia Regnum
Britanniae, written in the early 12th
century.**
History and Timeline of English
600 – 1066
Image from the famous Bayeux
Tapestry, depicting the Battle of
Hastings.
• In 991, Edward the
Confessor became king
and converted many
subjects to Christianity.
• Edward died, and Harold,
his brother-in-law, fought
and won a victory against
an invasion of Vikings,
but…
• He was then promptly
killed at the Battle of
Hastings. The Normans
had invaded!
History and Timeline of English
1066 – 1476
Image from the famous Bayeux
Tapestry, depicting the Battle of
Hastings
• The French, under William the
Conqueror, brought their
language, and returned Latin in
the roots of French to English.
• The Saxon barons were robbed
of their property and displaced.
The French brought in their
own merchants, artisans, and
servants – and of course, their
own wine…necessitating
communication among the
native speakers and the French
servants for commerce.
History and Timeline of English
1066 – 1476
• Their invasion displaces the
Anglo Saxon aristocracy, and
causes the strife that later
results in the Magna Carta,
1215. (And terrific stories of
Richard I, King John and Robin
Hood ! We’ll get to them…)
• French and Latin become the
language of the court, and many
Norman kings cannot speak
English. It isn’t until the end of
the Plantagenet kings that
English is spoken, but by now it
is no longer Anglo-Saxon.
History and Timeline of English
1066 – 1476
English begins to change as it melds with French,
especially as the lower classes find ways to communicate
with one another. Changes in language begin with what
linguists call “pidgin” – we might call it “Franglish”. The
macaronic communication then evolved into a creole,
formally called Anglo-Norman. This language was spoken
among the merchants and servants of the Norman
aristocracy. It became the language of commerce, literature
and poetry as well. By the second century of the new
millennium, it evolved to what we call Middle English.
With a blend of Germanic, Norse and Romance language
roots, English today has the richest vocabulary in Europe.
Middle English, and Middle French, became the languages
of many of the Arthur Legends, as troubadours carried
stories back and forth across the Channel.
History and Timeline of English
1066 – 1476
Hall, J.R. Clark. A Concise Anglo-Saxon
Dictionary. Fourth Edition. Toronto, Canada:
University of Toronto Press, 2004. 296. Print.
• We note the division in our
language between high diction
of the conquering French and
the relatively low diction of the
conquered Anglo Saxon. For
example, compare “bovine” to
“cow” or “defecation” to the
good old Anglo-Saxon word
“scitte”. *
• While the French conquest left
its mark in the English language,
the political division between
France and England was bloody,
and took much longer to resolve
in a dispute that is called The
100 Years War.
History and Timeline of English
1066 – 1476
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The Normans in England over time
became more “English,” and the
Plantagenet kings were beginning to
look at themselves not only as outright
kings of England, but lawful rulers of
France.
Henry II ,who ruled much of France
through his marriage to Eleanor of
Aquitaine, also wanted independence
from the rule of Church ecclesiastic
courts. He ordered his archbishop,
Thomas à Becket, to argue his case in
Rome. Thomas refused, and on
Christmas Eve in 1170, Thomas was
murdered by four of Henry’s knights
in Canterbury Cathedral.*
History and Timeline of English
1066 – 1476
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Famous 19th century statue of Richard I
in front of Parliament in London.
England, partly to establish its
sovereignty, sent troops to fight the
Crusades led by Richard the
Lionheart in the same year,*
In 1215, after his death, Richard’s
brother, King John was forced to sign
The Magna Carta , giving more rights
to Saxon barons.
In 1258, John’s son, Henry III was
made to sign the Provisions of
Oxford, and Parliament was officially
established. There was a brief period
when the barons ruled under Simon
de Montfort. The power of the people
at home may have fed into a sense of
nationalism. England and France
continue to fight.
History and Timeline of English
1066 – 1476
• The 100 Years War* was fought
fiercely between 1337 and 1453
over the rights of English kings,
and set part of the backdrop for
Chaucer. It was likely that the
king he served, Edward III was
the first Plantagenet king to speak
English from birth.
• Eventually, in 1362, during
Chaucer’s time, the courts of
England changed the official
language from French, to Middle
English. It became the language
of scholars and poets, with
Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales
leading the way.
History and Timeline of English
1066 – 1476
• In 1476, William Caxton set up
a printing press in London.
This codified the language of
England, and “corrected” the
grammar and spelling of
dialects from around the
country, resulting in what is
known as “the great vowel
shift”. We’ll examine this
change as you study Middle
English and wrangle with
recitation in it. Eventually,
Modern English emerged from
this codification.
• The language of Shakespeare
and all the English Renaissance,
is by all accounts considered
Modern English.
Example of Old English, from
Beowulf
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16.
17.
18.
Đā cōm of mōre under mist-hleoþum
Grendel gongan, Godes yrre bær,
mynte se mān-scaða manna cynnes
summe besyrwan in sele þām hēan.
Wōd under wolcnum, tō þæs þe hē wīn-reced,
Gold-sele gumena gearwost wissse,
fættum fāhne. Ne wæs þæt forma sīð
þæt he Hrōþgāres hām gesōhte.
Næfre hē on aldor–dagum ær nē siþð an
heardran hæle heal-ðegnas fand.
Cōm þā tō recede rinc sīðian
drēamum bedæled. Duru sōna onarn
fўr-bendum fæst syþðan hē hire folmum gehrān:
onbræd þā bealo-hўdig, ðā hē gebolgen wæs,
recedes mūþan. Raþe æfter þon
on fāgne flōr fēond treddode,
ēode yrre-mōd; him of ēagum stōd
ligge gelīcost lēoht unfæger.
(Heaney 48.710-726)
Example of Middle English, from
Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales
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Whan that Aprill with his shoures sote
The droghte of Marche hath perced to the rote,
And bathed every veyne in swich licour
Of which vertu engendred is the flour;
Whan Zephirus eek with his swete breeth
Inspired hath in every holt and heeth
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
Hath in the Ram his halfe cours y-ronne,
And smale fowles maken melodye,
That slepen al the night with open ye
(So priketh hem Nature in hir corages):
Than longen folk to goon on pilgrimages.
Example of Modern English, from
Shakespeare’s Macbeth, 1.3.11-25.
Second Witch:
First Witch:
Third Witch:
First Witch:
I’ll give thee a wind.
Thou’rt kind.
And I another.
I myself have all the other,
And the very ports they blow,
All the quarters that they know
I’th’shipman’s card.
I’ll drain him dry as hay;
Sleep shall neither night nor day
Hang upon his penthouse lid;
He shall live a man forbid.
Weary sev’n-nights, nine times nine,
Shall he dwindle, peak, and pine;
Though his bark cannot be lost,
Yet it shall be tempest-tossed.
Example of Old English, from
Beowulf
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Sigon þa to slæpe. Sum sare angeald
æfen-ræste,
swa him ful oft gelalmp
siþðan gold-sele Grendel warode,
unriht æfnde, oþþæt ende becwom,
swylt æfter synnum. þæt gesyne wearþ,
wid-cup werum,
þætte wrecend þa gyt
lifde æfter laþum, lange þrage,
æfter guð-ceare. Grendles modor,
ides, aglæc-wif
yrmþe gemunde,
se þe wæter-egesan wunian scolde,
cealde streamas,
siþðan Cain wearð
to ecg-banan angan breþer,
fæderen-mæge; he þa fag gewat,
morþre gemearcod, man-dream fleon,
westen warode. þanon woc fela
geosceaft-gasta; wæs þæra Grendel sum
heoro-wearh hetelic, se æt Heorote fand
wæccendne wer wiges bidan.
Pg. 88 in Heaney’s Translation