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Chapter 2
Ecology of Socialization
Prologue:
What does it mean to be human?
• Let’s Challenge ourselves!
• What are some of your role models? Why are
they your role models?
An Ecological Model of Human
Development
Fig. 2-1, p. 43
Aims of Socialization
• Develop a self-concept
– Self-concept is an individual’s perception of
his or her identity as distinct from that of
others
– Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development
Fig. 2-2, p. 45
Self Concept
https://youtu.be/AZdsCdx04to
Video Questions
• Based on what you observed, and your
knowledge from the text, how does selfconcept develop and change over time?
• What is the basis of self-concept for middle
childhood?
Aims of Socialization
• Enable self-regulation
– Self-regulation involves the process of
bringing one’s emotions, thought, and
behavior under control
Aims of Socialization
• Empower achievement
– Socialization gives meaning or purpose to adulthood by
furnishing goals
– Adults who understand child development provide
appropriate challenges producing highly competent and
motivated children
– Social capital is a term referring to individual and communal
time and energy (human resources) available for such things
as social networking, personal recreation, community
improvement, civic engagement, and other activities that
create social bonds between individuals and groups
Aims of Socialization
• Teach appropriate social goals
– To be part of a group, individuals must
have a function that complements the
group
Aims of Socialization
• Implement developmental skills
• Developmental tasks:
–Are midway between an individual
need and societal demand
–Arise from social pressure on
individuals according to their
development
Agents of Socialization
•
The Family
1. The Family is the child’s introduction to
society and bears the major responsibility
for socializing the child
2. The Family functions as a system of
interaction that affects the psychological
development of children
Agents of Socialization
•
The Family
3. The Family is the first reference group
for values, norms, and practices
4. The Family functions as a system of
interaction that affects the psychological
development of children
Agents of Socialization
•
Schools and child care
1. School is a societal agent organized to
perpetuate society’s knowledge, skills,
customs, and beliefs
2. Socializing children for a society of rapid
change is a continual challenge
Agents of Socialization
•
Schools and child care
3. John Goodland found four broad
categories of goals relating to the
purpose of schooling
4. Teachers evaluate according to norms
and standards
Agents of Socialization
•
Schools and Childcare
5. Teaching methods impact socialization
6. Teachers are models to imitate
7. Child care has become an important
socialization agent due to societal
changes
Fig. 2-3, p. 51
Agents of Socialization
•
Peers
1. Peer groups give children experiences in
egalitarian types of relationships
2. Peer groups reward sociability and reject
deviations, thus the child learns to obey
the “rules of the game”
Agents of Socialization
•
Peers
3. Peer groups provide information about
the world and oneself from a new
perspective
4. Peer groups provide support for the
expression of values and attitudes
Agents of Socialization
•
Mass Media
1. Mass media teaches many of the ways of
society, as well as provides information
about the society
2. Mass media provides role models for
children to emulate
3. Concerns regarding media influence
Agents of Socialization
•
The Community
1. The community provides a sense of
belonging, friendship, and socialization of
children
2. Population distribution affects children’s
interactions
Agents of Socialization
•
The Community
3. The types of agencies within a
community affect children’s experiences
4. Services provided by the community
affect which parts of society are opened
to children
5. Communities can be support systems for
families
Methods of Socialization
•
Affective methods (effect emerges from feeling) Affective
refers to feelings or emotions, such as love, anger, fear, or
disgust. Affective mechanisms include responses to others,
feelings about self, feelings about others, and expression of
emotions. Affect emerges from person-to-person interaction,
which leads to attachment.
1. Attachment- is an “affectional tie that one person forms to
another specific person, binding them together in space
and enduring over time” (Ainsworth, 1973, p. 1).
Socialization begins with personal attachment
2. Infants who get a response when they cry, and who are
fed, held, and spoken to, will develop a secure attachment
and a sense of trust toward the world. On the other hand,
infants who receive minimal or inconsistent care will
develop an insecure attachment and a sense of mistrust
(Erikson, 1963). https://youtu.be/ylNmkuLr6SE
Table 2-1, p. 61
Methods of Socialization
•
Operant methods (effect emerges from
information processing)
1. Reinforcement
– An object or event that is presented
following a behavior and that serves to
increase the likelihood that the
behavior will occur again.
Methods of Socialization
•
Operant methods (effect emerges from
information processing)
2. Punishment
– Physically or psychologically painful
stimuli or the temporary withdrawal of
pleasant stimuli when undesirable
behavior occurs
Methods of Socialization
•
Operant methods (effect emerges from
information processing)
3. Feedback
– Evaluative information, both positive
and negative, about one’s behavior
Methods of Socialization
•
Operant methods (effect emerges from information
processing)
4. Learning by doing- Learning is a slow process of
construction and transformation of experience into
meaning.
– Albert Bandura (2000) relates learning by doing to the
attribution of self-efficacy the belief that one can master a
situation and produce positive effects. For example, children
who are encouraged and given opportunities to become
competent (as by helping to cook, putting a puzzle together,
or creating artwork) tend to be motivated to achieve on other
tasks. Offering developmentally appropriate choices,
meaningful activities that create opportunities for children to
succeed, enables children to learn by doing because they
can experience what works and what doesn’t (Schank,
2004).
https://youtu.be/teLoNYvOf90
Table 2-2, p. 67
Methods of Socialization
•
Observational methods (effect emerges from
information processing)
1. Modeling
– A form of imitative learning that occurs
by observing another person perform
a behavior and experience its
consequence
Methods of Socialization
•
Cognitive methods (effect emerges from information
processing)
1. Instruction-Instruction provides knowledge and information
and is a useful socializing mechanism. For instruction to
be effective, however, the child must be able to
understand the language used, as well as remember what
was said.
2. Setting Standards-A standard is a level of attainment or a
grade of excellence regarded as a goal or a measure of
adequacy. Standards are set by many socializing agents
3. Reasoning-is giving explanations or causes for an act. The
purpose of giving reasons in the process of socialization is
to enable the child to draw conclusions when encountering
similar situations, thereby internalizing self-regulatory
mechanisms.
Methods of Socialization
• 3. cont. Reasoning-The problem with giving reasons is that
children may not understand the words used (for example,
“spreads germs,” “is rude”), and often they are not able to
generalize a reason to another situation. Tis is because,
according to Piaget (1974), children under age 3 are generally
egocentric—that is, they lack the cognitive ability to take
another’s point of view.
– For reasoning to be effective as a socializing method with
children under the age of 3, it must be combined with other
techniques such as an emotional reaction. To illustrate, a
team of researchers (1979) examined how mothers of 14and 36-month-old children taught them to be empathetic and
altruistic when another child was in distress. (Altruism refers
to actions that are intended to aid or benefit another person
or group of people without the actor’s anticipation of external
rewards. Such actions often entail some cost, self-sacrifice
Methods of Socialization
– Factors other than parent-child interaction, such as imitation,
genetics, and temperament, have been found to be related
to the development of empathy and altruism.
• Children between age 4 and 7 are moving away from
egocentrism and toward sociocentrism—the ability to
understand and relate to the views
• and perspectives of theirs. These children may be able to
understand how another person feels or views things, but
may not be able to generalize the reason to another
situation.
• At this age, a child’s ability to reason is transductive
(connecting one particular idea to another particular idea
based on appearance rather than logic) rather than
inductive (connecting a particular idea to a more general
idea based on similarities) or deductive (connecting a
general idea to a particular idea based on similarities and
differences).
Methods of Socialization
•
Sociocultural methods (effect emerges from
information processing)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Group pressure
Tradition- is the handing down of customs, stories, and
beliefs from generation to generation.
Rituals and Routines-A ritual is a ceremonial
observance of a prescribed rule or custom. The
symbols or symbolic actions embrace meaning that
cannot always be easily expressed in words. Routines
are repetitive acts or established procedures. In
families, they may include bedtime, mealtime, and
anything else done on a regular basis.
Symbols-are acts or objects that have come to be
generally accepted as standing for or representing
something else (Vander Zanden, 1995), especially
something abstract.
Methods of Socialization
•
Apprenticeship methods (effect emerges
from guided participation)
1. Structuring
2. Collaborating
3. Transferring
Outcomes of socialization
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Values
Attitudes
Motives and attributes
Self-esteem https://youtu.be/ry1jJVr6eTU
Self-regulation/behavior
Morals
Gender roles