Construct Validity: A Universal
Validity System
Susan Embretson
Georgia Institute of Technology
Introduction
• Validity is a controversial concept in
educational and psychological testing
• Research on educational and psychological
tests during the last half of the 20th century
was guided by distinction of types of validity
• Criterion-related validity, content validity and
construct validity
• Construct validity is the most problematic
type of validity
• It involves theory and the relationship of data to
theory
Introduction
 Yet the most controversial type of validity became
the sole type of validity in the revised joint
standards for educational and psychological tests
(AERA/APA/NCME, 1999)
 In the current standards “Validity refers to the degree to
which evidence and theory support the interpretations of
test scores entailed by proposed uses of test”
 Content validity and criterion-related validity are two of
five different kinds of evidence.
 Reflects substantial impact from Messick’s (1989) thesis
of a single type of validity (construct validity) with
several different aspects.
Topics
Overview of the validity concept
Current issues on validity
Discontent with construct validity for educational tests
Need for content validity
Critique of content validity as basis for educational
testing
Universal system for construct validity
Applies to all tests
Achievement tests
Ability tests
Personality/psychopathology
Summary
History of the Construct Validity
Concept: Origins
• American Psychological Association (1954). Technical
recommendations for psychological tests and diagnostic
techniques. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 2, 1-38.
• Prepared by a joint committee of the American Psychological
Association, American Educational Research Association, and
National Council on Measurements Used in Education.
– “Validity information indicates to the test user the degree to
which the test is capable of achieving certain aims. … “Thus, a
vocabulary test might be used simply as a measure of present
vocabulary, as a predictor of college success, as a means of
discriminating schizophrenics from organics, or as a means of
making inferences about "intellectual capacity.“
– “We can distinguish among the four types of validity by noting
that each involves a different emphasis on the criterion. (p. 13)
History of the Construct Validity
Concept: Origins
Types of validity by use
Content validity
“The test user wishes to determine how an individual would
perform at present in a given universe of situations of which
the test situation constitutes a sample.”
Predictive validity
“The test user wishes to predict an individual's future
performance.”
Concurrent validity
“The test user wishes to estimate an individual's present status
on some variable external to the test.”
Construct validity
“The test user wishes to infer the degree to which the individual
possesses some trait or quality (construct) presumed to be
reflected in the test performance.”
History of the Construct Validity
Concept: Origins
Cronbach, L. J. & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct
validity in psychological tests. Psychological
Bulletin, 52, 281-302.
“We can dsitinguish among four types of validity by noting that
each one puts a different emphasis on the criterion. In
predictive or concurrent, the criterion behavior is of concern
to the tester and he may have no concern whatever with the
type of behavior observed on the test”
“ Content validity is studied when the tester is concerned with
the type of behavior in the test performance. Indeed, if the
test is a work sample, the test may be an end in itself.”
“Construct validity is ordinarily studied when the tester has no
definite criterion measure of the quality with which he is
concerned, and must use indirect measures. Here the trait or
quality underlyng the test is of central importance…….”
Implications of Original Views
• Same test can be used in different ways
• Relevant type of validity depends on test
use
• The types of validity differ in the
importance of the behaviors involved in
the test
More Recent Views on Types of
Validity
• Standards for Educational and Psychological
Testing (1954; 1966; 1974, 1985, 1999)
• 1985
– “Traditionally, the various means of accumulating
validity evidence have been grouped into categories
called content-related, criterion-related and constructrelated evidence of validity. …” “These categories are
convenient.…but the use of category labels does not
imply that there are distinct types of validity…”
– “An ideal validation includes several types of
evidence, which span all three of the traditional
categories.”
Conceptualizations of Validity:
Psychological Testing Textbooks
• “All validity analyses address the same basic question:
Does the test measure knowledge and characteristics
that are appropriate to its purpose. There are three
types of validity analysis, each answering this question in
a slight different way.” (Friedenberg,1995)
• “ …..the types of validity are potentially independent of
one another.” (Murphy & Davidshofer,1988)
• “There are three types of evidence: (1) construct-related,
(2) criterion-related, and (3) content-related.” …..”It is
important to emphasize that categories for grouping
different types of validity are convenient; however, the
use of categories does not imply that there are distinct
forms of validity.” Kaplan & Saccuszzo (1993)
Most Recent View on Types of
Validity
• Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing 1999
– “Validity refers to the degee to which evidence and theory
support the interpretations of test scores entailed by proposed
uses of tests”. The proposed interpretation refers to the construct
or concepts that the test is intended to represent.” (p.9)
– “These sources of evidence may illuminate different aspects of
validity, but they do not represent distinct types of validity.
Validity is a unitary concept.”
– “The wide variety of tests and circumstances makes it natural that
some types of evidence will be especially critical in a given case,
whereas other type will be less useful.” (p. 9)
– “Because a validity argument typically depends on more than one
proposition, strong evidence in support of one in no way
diminishes the need for evidence to support others. (p. 11).
The Sources of Validity Evidence
Evidence based on test content
Logical & empirical analysis of adequacy representing a content
domain -- Includes themes, wording, item format and procedures
for administration & scoring
Evidence based on response processes
Theoretical and empirical analysis of test taker’s response process
with respect to construct
Evidence based on internal structure
Relationships among test items correspond to construct structure
Evidence based on relations to other variables
Convergent & discriminate evidence
Test-criterion relationships
Validity generalization
Evidence based on the consequences of testing
Different impact by group, claims of testing benefits
Implications of 1999 Validity Concept
No distinct types of validity
Multiple sources of evidence for single test aim
Example-Mathematical achievement test used to
assess readiness for more advanced course
Propositions for inference
1) Certain skills are prerequisite for advanced course
2) Content domain structure for the test represents skills
3) Test scores represent domain performance
4) Test scores are not unduly influenced by irrelevant variables,
such as writing ability, spatial ability, anxiety etc.
5) Success in advanced course can be assessed
6) Test scores are related to success in advanced curriculum
Current Issues with the Validity
Concept: Educational Testing
Crocker (2003)
Content aspect of validity deserves more prominence
Educational accountability needs content representativeness
More methods for content related evidence needed
Design-- test specification and item generation;
Item review tasks; Subject matter expert reliability
Data analysis techniques for content judgments
Fremer (2000)
Construct validity is an unreachable goal
Borsboom, Mellenbergh & van Heerden (2004)
Current validity theory “fails to serve either the
theoretically oriented psychologist or the practically
inclined tester”
Current Issues with the Validity
Concept: Educational Testing
 Lissitz and Samuelson (2007)
 Propose some changes in terminology and
emphasis in the validity concept
 Argue that “construct validity as it currently
exists has little to offer test construction in
educational testing”.
 In fact, their system leads to a most startling
conclusion
 Construct validity is irrelevant to defining what
is measured by an educational test!!
 Content validity becomes primary in determining
what an educational test measures
Current Issues with the Validity
Concept: Educational Testing
Several published responses in Educational
Researcher
Embretson, S. E. (2007). Construct validity: A
universal validity system or just another test
Evaluation Procedure? Educational
Researcher, Vol. 36, No. 8, pp. 449–455.
Lissitz’ response: Organize a conference!
Critique of Content Validity as Basis
for Educational Testing
• Content validity is not up to the burden of
defining what is measured by a test
• Relying on content validity evidence, as
available in practice, to determine the meaning
of educational tests could have detrimental
impact on test quality
• Giving content validity primacy for educational
tests could lead to very different types and
standards of evidence for educational and
psychological tests
Validity in Educational Tests
Response to Lissitz & Samuelson
• Background
• Embretson, S. E. (1983). Construct validity:
Construct representation versus nomothetic
span. Psychological Bulletin, 93, 179-197.
• Construct representation
• Establishes the meaning of test scores from Identifying
the theoretical mechanisms that underlie test
performance (i.e., the processes, strategies and
knowledge)
• Nomothetic span
• Establishes the significance of test scores by Identifying
the network of relationships of test scores with other
variables
Validity in Lissitz and Samuelson’s
Framework
Taxonomy of test evaluation procedures
1) Investigative Focus
Internal sources = analysis of the test and its items
Provides evidence about what is measured
External sources =relationship of test scores to
other measures & criteria
Provides evidence about impact, utility and trait theory
2) Perspective
Theoretical orientation = concern with measuring
traits
Practical orientation = concern with measuring
achievement
Figure 2. Taxonomy of Test
Evaluation Procedures
Perspective
Theoretical
Internal Latent
Process
External Nomological
Network
Practical
Content and
Reliability
Utility and
Impact
Figure 1. The Structure of the
Technical Evaluation of Educational
Testing
Test
Evaluation
Internal
External
Latent Process
Theory (Nomological)
Content
Utility (Criterion)
Reliability
Impact
Validity
Implications for Validity
System represents best current practices
Internal meaning (validity) established
For educational tests, content and reliability evidence
Evidence based on internal structure (i.e., reliability, etc.)
Evidence based on test content
For psychological tests, depends on latent processes
Evidence based on response processes
Evidence based on internal structure (item correlations)
But, notice the limitations
Response process and test content evidence are not
relevant to both types of tests
External evidence based on relations to other variables
has no role in validity
External Evidence Only?
 Construct validity is removed from the validity
sphere!
 Critical to this view of construct validity is classification as
external evidence
 However, Cronbach and Meehl’s conceptualization
did include internal sources of evidence
 Studies of internal structure
 Studies of change
 Studies of processes
 Within the nomological network, these sources
would be classified as test to construct evidence.
 Thus, construct validity need not be decentralized
for this reason
Current Practice of Construct
Validity
 However, internal sources of information have no
priority in Cronbach and Meehl
 Simply another sources of evidence
 Considering only external sources may characterize
some current practices
 Re-conceptualize test meaning based on external evidence
rather than develop new tests
 Concern about the strong role of external sources
motivated Embretson (1983) distinctions
 If internal sources are primary, then item and test design
principles can become central in establishing test validity
(Embretson, 1995)
Construct Validity for Psychological
Tests in a Revised Taxonomy
• If construct validity included internal sources
• Now crucial to meaning for psychological tests
• Requires scientific foundation for item and test design
principles
• Impact of item features and testing procedures on KSAs
 But, concept of construct validity still not
relevant to include internal evidence for
educational tests
 Test meaning depends primarily on content-related
evidence and reliability evidence
Internal Evidence for Educational
Tests
 Reliability concept in the Lissitz and
Samuelson framework is generally
multifaceted and traditional
 Item interrelationships
 Relationship of test scores over conditions or
time
 Differential item functioning (DIF)
 Adverse impact
 (Perhaps adverse impact and DIF could be
considered as external information)
Internal Evidence for Educational
Tests
• Concept of Content Validity
• Previous test standards (1985)**
 Content validity was a type of evidence that
“…..demonstrates the degree to which a sample of
items, tasks or questions on a test are representative
of some defined universe or domain of content”
 Two important elements added by L&S
 Cognitive complexity level
 “whether the test covers the relevant instructional or content
domain and the coverage is at the right level of cognitive
complexity”
 Test development procedures
 Information about item writer credentials and quality control
Test Blueprints as Content Validity
Evidence
 Blueprints specify percentages of test items that
should fall in various categories
 Example- test blueprint for NAEP for
mathematics
 Five content strands
 Three levels of complexity
 Majority of states employ similar strands
 But, several reasons why blueprints and other
forms of test specifications (along with reliability
evidence) are not sufficient to establish meaning
for an educational test
1. Domain Structure is a Theory
Which Changes Over Time
 NAEP framework, particularly for cognitive
complexity, has evolved (NAGB, 2006)
 Views on complexity level also may
change based on empirical evidence, such
as item difficulty modeling, task
decomposition and other methods
 Changes in domain structure also could
evolve in response to recommendations of
panels of experts.
 National Mathematics Advisory Panel
 Recommend changes in the basic strands
2. Reliability of Classifications is
Not Well Documented
Scant evidence that items can be reliably classified
into the blueprint categories
Certain factors in an achievement domain may
make these categorizations difficult
For example, in mathematics a single real-world
problem may involve algebra and number sense, as
well as measurement content
Item could be classified into three of the five strands.
Similarly, classifying items for mathematical complexity
also can be difficult
Abstract definitions of the various levels in many systems
3. Unrepresentative Samples from
Domain
 Practical limitations on testing conditions
may lead to unrepresentative samples of
the content domain
 More objective item formats, such as multiple
choice and limited constructed response have
long been favored
 Reliably and inexpensively scored
 But these formats may not elicit the deeper
levels of reasoning that experts believe
should be assessed for the subject matter
4. Irrelevant Item Solving
Processes
 Using content specifications, along with item
writer credentials and item quality control, may
not be sufficient to assure high quality tests
 Leighton and Gierl (2007) view content specifications
as one of three cognitive models for making
inferences about examinee’s thinking processes
 For the cognitive model of test specifications for
inferences is that no evidence is provided that examinees are
in fact using the presumed skills and knowledge to solve
items
NAEP Validity Study for
Mathematics: Grade 4 and Grade 8
 Mathematicians examined items from NAEP and
some state accountability tests
 Results
 Small percent of items deemed flawedn(3-7%),
 Larger percent of items deemed marginal (23-30%)
 Marginal items had construct-irrelevant difficulties




problems with pattern specifications
unduly complicated presentation
unclear or misleading language
excessively time-consuming processes
 Marginal items previously had survived both contentrelated and empirical methods of evaluation
Examples of Irrelevant Knowledge,
Skills and Abilities
• Source
• National Mathematics Advisory Panel (2008).
Foundations for success: The final report of
the National Mathematics Advisory Panel.
Washington, DC: Department of Education
• Method- logical-theoretical analysis by
mathematicians & curriculum experts
• Mathematics involves aspects of logical
analysis, spatial ability and verbal reasoning,
yet their role can be excessive
Dependence on Non-Mathematical
Knowledge
Dependence on Logic, Not
Mathematics
Excessive Dependence on Spatial
Ability
Excessive Dependence on
Reasoning and Minimal
Mathemataics
Implication for Educational Tests
 Identifying irrelevant sources of item
performance requires more than content-related
evidence
 Latent process evidence is relevant
 E.g., methods include cognitive analysis (e.g., item difficulty
modeling), verbal reports of examinees and factor analysis
 External sources of evidence may provide needed
safeguards
 Example: Implications of the correlation of an algebra test
with a test of English
 If this correlation is too high, it may suggest a failure in the
system of internal evidence that supports test meaning
Construct Validity as a Universal
System and a Unifying Concept
 Features
 Consistent with current Test Standards (1999)
 Consistent with many of Lissitz and
Samuelson’s distinctions and elaborations
 Validity Concept
 Universal
 All sources of evidence are included
 Appropriate for both educational and psychological
tests
 Interactive
 Evidence in one category is influenced or informed
by adequacy in the other categories
Categories of Evidence in the
Validity System
• Eleven categories of evidence
• Conceive the categories for application to both
educational and psychological tests
• Consistent with most validity frameworks and the
current Test Standards (1999), it is postulated
that tests differ in which categories in the system
are most crucial to test meaning, depending on
its intended use
• Even so, most categories of evidence are
potentially relevant to a test
A Universal Validity System
Testing
Conditions
Latent
Process
Studies
Logic/
Theory
Item
Design
Principles
Test
Specs
Domain
Structure
Internal Meaning
Scoring
Models
Psychometric
Properties
Other
Measures
Utility
Impact
ExternalSignificance
Internal Categories of Evidence
Logic/Theoretical Analysis
Theory of the subject matter content, specification of
areas and their interrelationships
Latent Process Studies
Studies on content interrelationships, impact of item
design features on psychometric properties & response
time, impact of various testing conditions. etc.
Testing Conditions
Available test administration methods, scoring
mechanisms (raters, machine scoring, computer
algorithms), testing time, locations, etc. Included
because they determine the item types for which it is
important to develop design principles
Item Design Principles
Scientific evidence and knowledge about how
features of items impact the KSAs applied by
examinees-- Formats, item context, complexity and
specific content as determining relevant & irrelevant
basis (KSAs) for item responses
Internal Categories of Evidence
Domain Structure
Specification of content areas and levels, as
well as relative importance and
interrelationships
Test Specifications
Blueprints specifying domain structure
representation, constraints on item features,
specification of testing conditions
Psychometric Properties
Item interrelationships, DIF, reliability,
relationship of item psychometric properties
to content & stimulus features, reliability
Scoring Models
Psychometric models and procedures to
combine responses within and between items,
weighting of items, item selection standards,
relationship of scores to proficiency
categories, etc. Decisions about
dimensionality, guessing, elimination of
poorly fitting items etc. impacts scores and
their relationships
External Categories of Evidence
Utility
Relationship of scores to external variables,
criteria & categories
Other Measures
Relationship of scores to other tests of
knowledge, skills and abilities
Impact
Consequences of test use, adverse impact,
proficiency levels & etc
The Universal System of Validity
• Test Specifications is the most essential
category: it determines (with Scoring Models)
• Representation of domain structure
• Psychometric properties of the test
• External relationships of test scores
• Preceding Test Specifications are categories
that involve scientific evidence, knowledge and
theory
• Domain Structure
• Item Design Principles
• In turn preceded by
• Latent Process Studies
• Logical/Theoretical Analysis
• Testing Conditions
General Features of Validity
System
 Test meaning is determined by internal sources
of information
 Test significance is determined by external
sources of information
 Content aspects of the test are central to test
meaning
 Test specifications, which includes test content and
test development procedures, have a central role in
determining test meaning
 Test specifications also determine the psychometric
properties of tests, including reliability information
General Features of the Universal
Validity System
 Broad system of evidence is relevant to
support Test Specifications
 Item Design Principles --Relevancy of
examinees’ responses to the intended domain
 Domain Structure --Regarded as a theory
 Other preceding evidence
 Latent Process Studies
 Logical/theoretical analyses of the domain
 Testing Conditions
General Features of the Universal
Validity System
 Interactions among components
 Internal evidence  expectations for external
 External evidence informs adequacy of
evidence from internal sources
 Potential inadequacies arise when
 Hypotheses are not confirmed
 Unintended consequences of test use
 System of evidence includes both
theoretical and practical elements
 Relevant to educational and psychological
tests
The Universal System of Validity
• Example of Feedback
• Speeded math test to emphasize
automatic numerical processes
• External evidence-- strong adverse impact
• Internal evidence categories to question
• Item Design
• Relationship of item speededness to automaticity
• Domain Structure
• Heavy emphasis on the automaticity of numerical skills
Analysis of Categories
 Other categories elaborate their distinctions
 “Psychometric Properties”
 Evidence in Lissitz and Samuelson “Reliability” category
 “Latent Process Studies” category as related to a
specific test
 Scoring Models is a separate category
 Impact of decisions about dimensionality, guessing,
elimination of poorly fitting items and so forth is highlighted
for its impact on scores and their relationships
 Test Specifications category is construed broadly
 Include test blueprints, item writer guides, item writer
credentials, test administration procedures and so forth.
Application to Educational and
Psychological Tests: Achievement
Current emphasis
Test specification
Central to standards-based testing
Domain structures
Essential to blueprints
Scoring models & Psychometric properties
State-of-art in large scale testing
Underemphasized areas
Item design principles
Research basis is emerging
Latent process studies
Important in establishing construct-relevancy of student responses
Logical/Theoretical Analysis
Important in defining domain structure
Implications of feedback from studies on
Utility
Other Measures
Impact
Application to Educational and
Psychological Tests: Achievement
Example: Feedback from external relationships
Implications of negative evidence
Speeded math test to emphasize automatic numerical processes
External evidence-- strong adverse impact for certain groups
Issues to question
Item design
Relationship of item speededness to automaticity
Domain structure
Heavy emphasis on the automaticity of numerical skills
Example: Item Design & Latent Process Studies
Item response format for mathematics items
Katz, I.R., Bennett, R.E., & Berger, A.E. (2000). Effects of response
format on difficulty of SAT-Mathematics items: It’s not the strategy.
Journal of Educational Measurement, 37(1), 39-57.
Application to Educational and
Psychological Tests: Personality
Current emphasis
Logical/Theoretical Analysis
I.e., personality theories
Utility
Prediction of job performance
Other Measures
Factor analytic studies
Underemphasized areas
Test Specifications
Domain Structure
Item Design Principles
Latent Process Studies
Application to Educational and
Psychological Tests: Personality
• Test Specifications & Domain Structure
• Multifaceted constructs
• Ignoring domain structure  Lack of convergent validity
• Unbalanced or uncontrolled item set
• Emphasizing facet that is best represented if items
selected for internal consistency
• Item selection will not be consistent
• Example– Conscientiousness construct
• Major subdivisions
• Dependabilty, Achievement (Moutafi, Furnham & Crump,
2006)
• Duty (-), Achievement Striving (+) (Moon, 2001)
• Opposing relationship to commitment
Application to Educational and
Psychological Tests: Personality
Test Specifications & Domain Structure
• Example of structure in personality
• Facet theory to
• Define domain membership
• Define domain structure & observations
• Roskam, E. & Broers, N. (1996). Constructing
questionnaires: An application of facet design and
item response theory to the study of lonesomeness.
In G. Engelhard & M. Wilson (Eds.). Objective
Measurement: Theory into Practice Volume 3.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing. Pp. 349-385.
Facet Theory Approach to Measure
of Lonesomeness
Application to Educational and
Psychological Tests: Personality
Item Design Principles & Latent Process Studies
Most measures are self-report format
Basis of self-report may involve strong
construct-irrelevant aspects
Tasks require judgments about relevance of
statement to own behavior and then reliably
summarizing
California Psychological Inventory items
When in a group of people I usually do what the others want
rather than make suggestions
There have been a few times when I have been very mean to
another person.
I am a good mixer.
I am a better talker than listener.
Application to Educational and
Psychological Tests: Personality
• Science of self-report is emerging and linked to
cognitive psychology
• Stone, A. A., Turkkan, J. S., Bachrach, C.A., Jobe, J. B.,
Kurtzman, H. S. & Cain, V. S. (2000). The science of selfreport. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Publishers.
• Studies on how item and test design impacts
self-report accuracy
– Self-reports under optimal conditions are biased
• Daily diaries of dietary self-reports contain insufficient
calories to sustain life
• Smith, A. F., Jobe, J. B., & Mingay, D. M. (1991b). Retrieval
from memory of dietary information. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 5, 269-296.
• Personality inventories are far less optimal for reliable
reporting
Application to Educational and
Psychological Tests: Personality
Mechanisms in self-report
Response styles
Social desirability
Acquiesence
Memory & Context
When memory information is sufficient, other
methods are applied
Context
Information earlier in the questionnaire
Ambiguity of issue discussed
Moods evoked by earlier questions
Self-Report Context Effects
Application to Educational and
Psychological Tests: Personality
Item Design Principles
Lievens, F. & Sackett, P. (2007). Situational judgment tests in
high stakes settings: Issues and strategies with generating
equivalent forms. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 10431055.
Application to Educational and
Psychological Tests: Personality
• Integration of Item Design Principles &
Logical/Theorical Analysis & Latent
Process Studies
– Example Test of Aggression
• James, L. R. McIntrye, M. D., Glisson, C. A., Green, P. D. (2005). A
conditional reasoning measure for aggression. Organizational Research
Methods, 8, 69-80.
• Item design based on hypothesis that responses to ambiguous
scenarios involve justification mechanisms related to
aggression
Sample Item with Hostile Attribution
Bias for Keyed Response
Summary
 History of validity shows changes in the
concept
 Notion of types still apparent
 Construct validity is appropriate for
educational tests
 Content aspect is not sufficient
 Construct validity is a universal system of
evidence relevant to diverse tests