Definitions of “abnormal”

Chapter 1.

Definitions of

“Abnormal”

Definitions of “abnormal”

 Difficulty in coping as perceived by the individual.

 Difficulty in coping as perceived by others.

 Theoretical model.

 Statistical deviation.

 Cultural & social norms.

 What is included in a diagnostic system (e.g. DSM-IV)

 Deviancy depends upon the context or situation.

Abnormal Psychology, 11/e by Sarason & Sarason

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Markers of abnormality

 Behavior

 Feelings or affect

 Thought or cognitive process

 Physiological responses

 External situation


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A Working Definition of “Abnormal Behavior”

Abnormal behavior is maladaptive behavior--any behavior that does not facilitate the ultimate well-being of the individual and/or the group. A behavior is abnormal if it keeps the individual from coping with the normal stresses of life.

(Note that this definition begs the question of what the

"normal” stresses of life are).


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The Vulnerability Model

Vulnerability

(biological, psychological, and social)

Processes

(Biological, psychological, and social)

Stressor

Outcome


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Epidemiological Perspectives

Prevalence --the rate of both new & existing cases

Point prevalence - the proportion of people who have a disorder at a specific time

Lifetime prevalence -the proportion of people in the general population who have ever had a particular disorder

Incidence --the rate of new cases during a defined period of time

Risk factor --a specific characteristic or condition whose presence is associated with an increased likelihood that a specific disorder is present, or will develop at a later date.

Resiliency factor - a specific characteristic or condition whose presence is associated with an decreased likelihood that a specific disorder is present, or will develop at a later date.


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Mental Health Professions

 Psychologist

 Psychiatrist

 Social worker

 Psychiatric nurse (also R.N., Clinical Nurse Specialist)

 Occupational therapist

 Family Therapist


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A Brief History of

Abnormal Psychology


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Models in Psychopathology

 Demonological

 Medical/ biological model

 Environmental/ social model

 Psychogenic model

 Vulnerability model--biopsychosocial model

To some degree, all of these models still prevail today.


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Historical Highlights

Stone Age ; trephination, religious accounts of abnormal behavior

Early Chinese, Hebrews, Greeks

Hippocrates (470- 370 BC) - "humours" or bodily fluids: excess or too little of each led to problems, as follows.

1.

Blood  changeability

2.

Black bile  melancholic

3.

Yellow bile  anxiety

4.

Phlegm  sluggish

Recognized disorders: 1) mania; 2) melancholia; 3) phrenitis or swelling of the brain.


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Historical Highlights- continued

Dark Ages (200 A.D. to the Renaissance).

European Middle Ages

Throughout this period, there was increased conflict between the church & witchcraft —

Dancing Manias

"Malleus Maleficarum” (The Witch Hammer)

Salem Witch Trials

Exorcism was a common treatment

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Saint Catherine Exorcising a Possessed Woman

(by Girolamo Di Benvenuto)


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• Establishment of Mental Hospitals or Asylums

•E.g. St. Mary’s of Bethlehem- 1547

• Reform– P. Pinel (1745- 1815)

• Benjamin Rush (1745- 1813)-- moral treatment.

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• Middle to late 1800s: Emergence of psychiatry

(primarily medical model)

• Early diagnosis: E. Kraepelin (1856-1926)

• Psychological Theories & Causes (Freud, Jung,

Adler)

• Behavioral models (1920s)

• The “Third Force”- humanistic models

• Biological models (especially since 1950s and 60s)

•Deinstitutionalization 

• Cognitive revolution in psychology (1970s and continuing)


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Research Methods


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Steps in Research

1.

Specify the topic as clearly & precisely as possible.

2.

Review the relevant literature.

3.

Define the variables:

- Independent variables are conditions or factors that are being studied or manipulated

- Dependent variables are what your observe as outcomes

4. Develop a specific hypothesis or hypotheses.

5. Select a research strategy--how will the hypothesis be tested?

6. Conduct the study.

7. Analysing the result, using descriptive and/or inferential statistics . The former describe the sample (e.g. means, s.d.) & the latter provide probabilistic judgments.

8. Report the findings.


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Types of Research- I

Case studies --Usually detailed clinical description of a single subject--can provide important ideas or hypotheses regarding a specific disorder, theory, etc. May be useful for rare disorders.

Correlational studies --look at the relationships between variables or sets of variables--again, has limited utility, but can provide useful preliminary information.



Assessment studies --use of objective, standardized assessment data on small or large groups of people. Essentially correlational in nature. Epidemiological studies of population disorders fall in this category.


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Correlational

Patterns


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Types of Research- II

Epidemiological designs



Cross-sectional studies – done at a specific point in time, with specific individuals.

Longitudinal studies --assessment studies done over time, with the same group of individuals.

Follow-up studies --follow-up of smaller, more specific group of individuals, usually shorter time period than longitudinal.


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Types of Research- III

Experimental studies--usually use inferential statistics. Two major types:

1.

Hypothesis-testing experiment

2.

Behavior-change experiment or N =1 designs(do the treatment methods impact the expected behavior change?).


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Hypothesis testing


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The results of a (hypothetical) true experiment

The treatment of Panic Disorder; using self-reported anxiety as the outcome

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Pretreatment

Posttreatment

6- month follow-up

No treatment

Drug therapy

Behaviour

Therapy


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A hypothetical N = 1 design

The treatment of social anxiety using behavioral assignments

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Pre-intervention Post-intervention

Self-reported anxiety

Observed avoidance behaviour


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Research Design, Statistical Analysis & Inference

Internal validity--are the results of the study attributable to the manipulation of the I.V.?

A well controlled study usually has good internal validity.

External validity--do these results reflect any external reality? Is the manipulation in the lab related to "real life"?

Descriptive & inferential statistics

Confounding of results--an uncontrolled (& unknown) variable may affect the d.v. & mistakenly be attributed to the i.v.

Reactivity--changes in behavior as a result of being studied or observed. E.g. the

"Novelty" effect of being in an experiment.

Demand characteristics--clues giving out to subjects as to how they are "supposed" to behave.

Expectancy effects--similar to above, but has to do with experimenters, assessors' expectations of how the subjects should be responding.


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Who your participants are matters!

Population

Sampling:

- Random sampling

- Stratified sampling

Representative sample

Experimental group

Control group


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Ethics of Research

There are strict standards for human and animal research have been set by professional groups (e.g. American Psychological Association)

All research at universities must be approved prior to it being conducted & must follow the guidelines set by the federal granting agencies.

Most institutions have research guidelines or requirements for research conducted in them (e.g. hospitals, community programs).

All of the above have complaints procedures, and legal liabilities for failure to follow required standards.


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Ethics of Research

Key issues include:

1.

Informed consent

2.

Competence to provide consent

3.

Lack of coercion/ voluntary consent

4.

Identification of risks

5.

Protection of vulnerable populations (e.g. children, mentally disordered)

6.

Risk management and offset


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Definitions of “abnormal”

Chapter 1.

Definitions of

“Abnormal”