RUNNING HEAD: The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
Lucas B. Kazman
Western University
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The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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Abstract
The relationship between genre and tempo on stress levels was explored in a controlled
experiment sampling Canadian university students (N = 46). Questionnaires measured selfreported performance and stress through the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory after exposure to a
mild stressor, a logic-based test. Classical music (M = 42.96, SD = 5.85) was found to be no
more effective than heavy metal music (M = 46.05, SD = 7.78) and tempo was also found to have
no significant impact on the level of stress, as the sedative music group (M = 43.77, SD = 8.15)
was similar to stimulative music (M = 44.79, SD = 5.53). ANOVA analysis showed no
statistically significant correlation between musical characteristics and outcomes. The study
contradicts past findings that showed significant impact from music type and tempo, suggesting
further research into the effects of demographic characteristics on music preference and the
effectiveness of music therapy.
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
Stress is the cause of a wide range of physical and psychological illnesses, ranging from
emotional disorders to heart disease and high blood pressure (Jiang, Zhou, Rickson, & Jiang,
2013). More, stress has been shown to have an immediate effect on performance and cognitive
functioning (Cabanac, Perlovsky, Bonniot-Cabanac, & Cabanac, 2013). The implications of
long-term stress on health and job performance are of obvious concern, and there is clear need
for effective psychological techniques for stress reduction. Research has demonstrated that
perceived stress and state-anxiety are decreased in individuals who listen to music when exposed
to high-stress tasks (Thoma et al., 2013).
Studies to date have shown that listening to music produces positive cognitive,
behavioral, physiological, and mental responses as an overall benefit for the individual
experiencing acute stress. Prior research has shown that listening to calming music reduces
participants’ subjective anxiety levels in a range of settings (Aldridge, 1993; Biley, 2000; Henry,
1995; Standley, 1992). Further studies have shown that various physical responses are achieved
based on the type of music. However, few studies have explored the precise connection between
the characteristics of the music and the psychological effects music has on an individual, as
measured through their perceived stress. This study attempts to correct this gap in knowledge,
focusing on the research question: how do different types of music change the physiological
responses to stress?
Neurobiology, specifically the study of the limbic system where both pain and positive
emotions are stored in the amygdala, adds to this discussion. Music has been shown to elucidate
pronounced emotional responses as shown by a PET Scan (Blood, Zatorre, Bermudez, & Evans,
1999). These studies indicate that music continues to affect the emotional regions of the brain.
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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Further, the scans showed that individuals experienced both positive and negative responses to
the music, depending on their individual cultural norms. This suggests that how a person
responds to music in a stressful situation is dependent upon personal preference (Blood et al.,
1999). A study of 20 individuals by Mockel et al. evaluated physiological, hormonal, mental and
cardiovascular changes as various genres of music were introduced (1994). Japanese Folk Songs
and Classical music were found to be the most effective in decreasing pre-operative stress for all
participants. However, the study showed no significant difference in objective hormonal or
cardiovascular measures (Mockel et al., 1994).
Research has shown that music has a profound effect on both health and psyche. In fact, a
growing field within mental health relates to music therapy, which uses music to help with the
healing process. Those who practice music therapy claim benefit to using it to help cancer
patients, stressed and anxious individuals, and other groups; hospitals are even beginning to use
music and music therapy to help with pain management, to help prevent depression, to promote
mobility, to calm patients, and to ease muscle tension (Brunton, Lazo, & Parker, 2005). Results
from a meta-analysis of studies in this field concluded that music-assisted relaxation significantly
increases relaxation under arousal (i.e. stressful) conditions. Regardless of the physical
characteristics of the music, such as sound, wavelength, tone, or volume, all of the results of the
studies reviewed showed positive results of music with significant stress reduction (Standley,
1992). Further analysis of each study, however, revealed that the amount of stress reduction was
significantly different when considering age, type of stress, music assisted relaxation technique,
musical preference, previous music exposure, and type of intervention. The meta-analysis
ultimately concluded, though, that "the effects of music on relaxation are still difficult to
identify” because of variability in methods and music types across studies (Standley, 1992, 370).
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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Simply being in an environment where music is playing during normal, everyday
activities may be enough to reduce an individual's level of stress. In the study by Brunton et al.,
music was played during dinner, first soothing and then pop music, and the effects on the nursing
home residents was measured. The results of the study suggest that dinner music, particularly the
soothing music, can reduce irritability, fear-panic, and depressed mood; it was also shown to
stimulate improved functioning in the ill, as measured by their appetite and consumption of food
(Brunton et al., 2005).
Davis (1992) examined the effect of passive music listening on females during different
points in gynecological procedures and reported that during the punch biopsy procedures, control
participants (with no music) had significantly higher respiratory rates and overall pain scores
than the experimental group. Subsequent studies have supported Davis’s findings showing that in
most clinical settings, music will allow patients to focus their thoughts elsewhere, lowering their
heart rate, pain sensation, and feelings of discomfort overall. Similarly, Watanabe (2001)
observed heart rate and self-reported stress after music-assisted, progressive muscle relaxation
treatment in nurses. A significant difference was found in pulse rate, but not in self-reported data
in participants (as cited in Smith, 2008). This further supports the experimental data provided by
Davis, connecting music therapy with reduction in stress and pulse on heart rate (1992).
The type of music has been suggested to be an important factor in achieving successful
stress reduction. The study by Labbe, Schmidt, Babin & Pharr (2007) investigated the impact of
different musical genres (heavy metal, classical, or self-selected) on the level of stress following
a test. Their results suggested that listening to classical or relaxing music after being exposed to a
stressor significantly reduced negative emotional states, as compared to listening to heavy metal
music. Further research suggests that classical music produces a markedly improved response.
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Data from studies using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory reveals that soothing music clearly
reduces chronic anxiety states, an effect that holds true through a number of studies and settings
(Aldridge, 1993; Biley, 2000; Henry, 1995; Standley, 1992). However, there are significant
differences to music even within genres, particularly in tempo and mood. Iwanaga and Moroki
(1999) explored this effect by classifying music as either sedative or stimulative. Sedative music
is defined as having a flowing melody with few changes and between 60 to 80 beats per minute,
while stimulative music is defined as having a faster beat and more upbeat tempo (Voss et al.,
2004). Iwanaga and Moroki’s research suggested that stimulative music significantly increases
stress arousal as compared to the sedative, more relaxing music (1999). In a different study, the
introduction of calming music resulted in a distinct drop in salivary cortisol, an indicator of a
hyperarousal state induced by a stressor (Khalfa, Bella, Roy, Perez, & Lupien, 2003). According
to prior studies, arousal is directly linked to anxiety and stress. Thoma and associates describe
this process "as a threat or perceived threat is present, an individual is aware of both the
probability of danger and the immediate effects on the central nervous system" (2013, pp.
e70156). The authors further suggest that the limbic system housing these emotions, as well as
the systems of the nervous system as a whole, goes into alert as a result of the stressor (Thoma et
al., 2013). In the Neuroscience Review, a study was conducted that showed conclusive evidence
of the brain's reaction to the stimulus of stress (Allen, Kennedy, Cryan, Dinan, & Clarke, 2014).
The components of this reaction are broken down for further review. The central nervous system
describes the emotion regulation and decision-making. The amygdala shows the emotion and
stress processing. The hypothalamus activates the pituitary through corticotropin-releasing factor
(CRF) secretion. The neurotransmitters show cognitive functioning. In the review, the authors
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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demonstrated through imaging that each portion of the brain, and its respective chemical
components, were affected by stressful activities (Allen et al., 2014).
Evidence clearly links an overall reactive response in brain chemistry to the introduction
of stressful stimuli. Then, how is the brain's chemistry affected by soothing, calming music?
According to Blood et al., the brain's chemistry is dramatically affected when soothing music is
introduced (1999). Their research suggests changes in the paralimbic and neocortical regions of
the cortex (Blood et al., 1999). Additional research shows the autonomic nervous system is the
tool by which music therapeutically affects the brains chemistry (Ellis & Thayer, 2010). The
study by Thoma et al. (2013) suggested that music is linked to reduction in anxiety in several
significant ways. Their findings showed significant stress reduction through the music therapy
treatment and indicated that all central nervous system qualities underwent a distinct and positive
change, including perceived threats and the body's state of relaxation prior to listening to music.
There was a distinct difference between the intervention and control groups, clearly
demonstrating the calming effect of music on their participants. Despite the subjective benefits,
this study showed cortisol levels actually increased with the introduction of sedative music
(Thoma, et al, 2013). Previous research, however, had indicated that cultural norms contributed
to whether music related stress reduction was a factor (Thoma et al., 2013). While one previous
study showed reductions in stress levels, other studies revealed either no improvement or an
increase in cortisol levels (Thoma, et al., 2013; Blood et al., 1999). These contradictions were the
motivating factor for this current study. How does music of different types lower anxiety in
stress-related environments? It was predicted that results would show that hyper-arousal anxiety
states lowered significantly when classical music, with the slowest tempo was played, whereas
heavy metal music will not produce a reduction in stress at any tempo.
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Music is often seen throughout society, across all age groups, as a form of selfexpression. Young people particularly relate to music and report that music can help them relax.
They will often have a collection of favorite 'tunes' that they will listen to when they are feeling
'stressed out' (Knobloch & Zillman, 2002; Labbé et al., 2007). In one study by Knobloch and
Zillmann (2002), individuals were allowed to self-select into a control group with no music, or
were allowed to select the music of their choice; the group with no music exposure was found to
have a higher level of stress rate and anxiety as compared to those exposed to the music of their
own choosing (Knobloch & Zillmann, 2002). It has been suggested, however, that because
perception is so significantly involved in the experience of music, personal preference might play
a significant role in actual achieved stress reduction. Some sounds that might be pleasant for one
person could be very disturbing to others, depending on the fit of the music to a specific
individual. Each genre of music might be relaxing to an individual, dependent on that person's
taste and how they define the quality of that genre; what is relaxing is not solely determined by
the physical properties of the music.
The current study replicates prior research by examining the impact on participants'
perceived levels of stress and the type of music (classical versus heavy metal) and the arousal of
the music (stimulative versus sedative). The researchers hypothesized that participants who listen
to classical music would experience lower levels of perceived stress compared to participants
who listen to rock music while exposed to the stressor; music that produces higher arousal (i.e.
stimulative) was predicted to result in increased levels of stress and state-anxiety when compared
to the sedative music group. This study compared and contrasted both the positive and negative
correlations between classic music and heavy metal. Ultimately, this study attempted to explore
the possible benefits of music as a stress-management tool when used during a stressful activity.
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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Methods
Participants
The participants in this study were 46 university undergraduate students, both male and
female, with ages ranging from 19-33. These participants were 24% male (N = 11) and 76%
female (N = 35). All of the participants were students currently enrolled in a psychology research
methodology course at Western University; they received course credit as incentive for their
participation. They were not otherwise compensated for participation. This research setting
resulted in a relatively young study population, with a mean age of only 20.59 (SD = 2.79). All
students who were tested reside either on or near campus. One female student withdrew from
participation in the study during testing and was excluded from data analysis because she failed
to complete all questionnaires.
Participants were assigned into one of four experimental groups: classical sedative,
classical stimulative, heavy metal sedative, and heavy metal stimulative. The participants were
randomly assigned into music categories through random drawing into one of the two categories
chosen for that day. Randomization was conducted in an effort to reduce bias as the result of
individual music preference.
Materials
In the first part of the questionnaire (Appendix A), participants were asked to provide
demographic information, rate the test difficulty on a scale from 0-10, and give a projected
grade. In the second part (Appendix B), participants answered a series of stress-related items via
an existing, validated measurement tool, the State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), which
measured participants’ anxiety as perceived following the mild stressor. The STAI is a validated
20-item self-report assessment device, which includes separate measures of state and trait
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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anxiety, originally constructed by Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lusherie in 1964. The test not only
shows the current condition of anxiety (e.g., “I am worried”), it also reveals the presence of more
long-standing anxiety, including an evaluation of how a participant views past experiences (e.g.,
“I feel upset”). The scale for each item is from 1 ("almost never") to 4 ("almost always"); nine
items are reverse-coded, representing an absence of anxiety (e.g., “I feel calm”). The State Trait
Anxiety Inventory was selected as a validated representation of the current levels of anxiety the
participants experienced following the mild stressor (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lusherie, 1970).
When reverse-coded and tallied, the maximum possible STAI score is 80 points (i.e. "almost
always" answered for every positively coded question and "almost never" answered for every
negatively coded question). Participants’ total STAI scores in this study had some variability, but
were generally of medium intensity; the scores ranged from 33 to 67 with a mean score of 44.30
(SD = 6.85). The total STAI is the primary dependent variable of interest in this study, as it is the
only validated measure of stress or anxiety used.
In addition to these two questionnaires used for data collection, a third exam (Appendix
C) was also administered to all participants. The purpose of this third test was to stimulate a
stress response through the extremely difficult, timed examination. It consisted of 20 questions,
developed for this study. Since the purpose of this test was solely to stimulate stress and
performance was not analyzed as part of the study, it was not deemed necessary to use an
existing measurement tool. All of the questions concerned general mathematics, with the
exception of a single science question added. This exam was designed to be impossible to
complete within the given 6 minutes.
Participants perceived the difficulty of the administered examination, used to induce a
stressful condition, to be moderately difficult. Scores for difficulty were in the range of 3 and 7
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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on a scale of 1 (very low) to 10 (very high) (M = 5.89, SD = 1.14). Perceived difficulty of the
examination is somewhat descriptive of the stress level felt by the participant. Participants
reported expected grades (number of correct answers) between 0 and 16 on a scale of 0 (no
answers correct) to 20 (every answer correct) (M = 4.27, SD = 3.92). Expected grades indicate
how the participant felt about their knowledge and abilities to successfully take the test, factors
that are correlated with perceived stress.
Procedure
Each participant was given a letter of information (Appendix D) describing their
involvement and the intent of the study. A brief question and answer session preceded the
administration of the test, providing additional clarification for the participants. In the
explanation of the test, mild deception was utilized in an effort to slightly increase the
participant's stress response and decrease the testing bias for their emotional state. Participants
were told that the test was used to measure their academic performance and rate of recollection
under the different musical stimuli, a mild deception, as the study's true purpose was to measure
stress. Privacy concerns and anonymity were discussed for ethical adherence, which was assured
by not collecting any personally identifying information or information that could be used to link
survey responses with identities. Participants were informed of compensation for stress,
including an explanation that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time; one
female student who initially consented did subsequently withdraw, and has been excluded from
further analysis.
The 46 participants were randomly assigned, via drawing, to one of four groups:
stimulative classical (N = 14), sedative classical (N = 12), stimulative rock (N = 10), and sedative
rock (N = 10). No control was utilized. Random assignment was an effort to control for possible
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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confounding factors and extraneous variables that may have resulted in self-selection into a
particular group. While listening to the music type to which they were assigned, each participant
was given a mildly stressful logic-based examination and instructed to complete as many
problems as possible within the time given.
The classical music groups used songs from Beethoven, while the rock music group used
songs from the band Metallica. The two Beethoven pieces that were used were Piano Concerto
No.2 in B Flat Major, Op.19: II Adagio (sedative) and Piano Trio No. 5 in D Major, Op. 70:
"Ghost" - III Presto (stimulative). The two Metallica pieces were both variations that are used for
karaoke (contain no lyrics) of the songs Unforgiven II (sedative) and St. Anger (stimulative).
During the music-listening treatments, participants were asked to complete a mildly stressful
logic-based examination. Individuals answered a series of test questions for a fixed time of six
minutes, during which the music played continuously and did not have to repeat. At the end of
their academic test, the participants answered two short questionnaires on separate pages, the
first one, Appendix A, probed their demographics and perceptions of the test and the second one,
Appendix B, probed their experience of stress and anxiety via the State Trait Anxiety Inventory
previously described. The debriefing letter (Appendix E) provided a revised purpose of the
study, including the information that the original description of the study included mild
deception. Participants were provided with the opportunity to opt-out of final inclusion in study
results as a result of this deception, although no participants elected to withdraw consent after
debriefing. All participants were also given affirmation that the test was intentionally designed to
be impossible to complete within the time frame given, and that their performance has no bearing
on their worth or actual academic abilities. The entire testing procedure took a total of
approximately 15 minutes.
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Results
ANOVA analysis was conducted to determine the significance of the effect of the two
independent variables, type of music and tempo, on the level of perceived stress by the
participants. While the difference in means between the different categories suggest a
relationship, none of the tests within the ANOVA analysis for total State Trait Anxiety Inventory
score reached a level of statistical significance. Type of music was not found to significantly
impact the level of stress (p = .138), as classical music (M = 42.96, SD = 5.85) was no more
effective than heavy metal music (M = 46.05, SD = 7.78) at reducing stress. Tempo was also not
found to significantly impact the level of stress (p = .507), as the effect of sedative music (M =
43.77, SD = 8.15) was roughly the same as stimulative music (M = 44.79, SD = 5.53). When both
variables were considered, the effect size was still not statistically significant between groups (p
= .734). Levene’s test was also not statistically significant (p = .242), further indicating that
random sampling would result in a similar variance in the dependent variable across similar
groups. Neither perceived difficulty nor expected grade revealed any statistically significant
differences across groups in these less robust measures of stress.
Discussion
Based on prior research in the field it was hypothesized that classical music would be
more effective at reducing stress than heavy metal music, and a sedative tempo would also result
in a more effective reduction in stress levels then stimulating-type music. That is to say, higher
scores on the State Trait Anxiety Inventory, measuring participants’ perceived stress levels,
would be seen in participants’ in the heavy metal stimulating group, whereas the classical
sedative group would have the lowest STAI score.
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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In this study, however, the results showed that the type of music and the tempo of the
music had no significant impact on the participants’ level of stress. The participants’ total STAI
score was found to be of average intensity, indicating that most study participants experienced
roughly the same stress levels. No significant difference in means was revealed under ANOVA
analysis. Results from this study failed to demonstrate any statistically significant relationship
between the type and tempo of music and stress levels in this study population.
Previous research overwhelmingly supports the hypothesis that listening to music
concurrent with exposure to painful or stressful experiences (i.e. arousal) will result in a reduced
level of stress. The findings of this study, however, are not in agreement with the body of
previous research. This may be accounted for by innate differences among varying demographic
groups. The sample size of this population differed significantly from previous studies, likely a
factor contributing to the non-significant results. The present studies’ participants had a mean
age younger than participants in many of the previous studies. The participants were also very
close together in age, as shown by the small standard deviation, and were predominantly female.
Research has shown that demographic differences have a significant impact on response to
music, supporting this idea. Brain scans showed that individual cultural standards determined
whether they experienced positive or negative response to the music. This suggests that how a
person reacts to music in a stressful environment is due more to personal preference than to
musical characteristics, which could account for some of the differences in results from the
present study (Blood et al., 1999). The recent study by Jiang et al. (2013) analyzed the impact of
sedative and stimulating music and musical preference on stress reduction after exposure to a
stressor. The researchers found that participants who listened to stimulating music had much
higher anxiety and stress levels than those who listened to sedative-type music when the music
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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was not preferred. However, they found no significant differences in stress levels when the
sedative and stimulating music was the preferred musical genre. Perhaps an equal number of
participants in each group had a preference for the genre of music they were experiencing, while
an equal number in each group also disliked the genre of their group, whether classical or heavy
metal. Females also have been shown to show hypersensitivity to musical stimuli, which
indicates that differences between sexes may play a confounding effect when using music for
emotional regulation (Nater, Abbruzzese, Krebs, & Ehlert, 2006). Since this study population
was significantly more gender-skewed than previous studies, this could play a factor as well.
The recent study by Thoma et al. (2013) analyzed the effect of music on the human stress
response. The researchers conducted an experiment by exposing participants’ to a standardized
stress test after being randomly assigned to one of three conditions: relaxing music, sound of
rippling water, and rest without acoustic stimulation. As opposed to the current study, the
researchers specifically measured heart rates, subjective stress and anxiety perception, salivary
cortisol and salivary amylase levels, and respiratory sinus arrhythmia, while the current study
focused primarily on the subjective effects. By using sixty healthy female participants, recruited
by advertisement at a university campus, the researchers were able to study the interaction
between these more complex stress factors and music. It was determined that listening to music
predominantly impacted the psychobiological stress system and autonomic nervous system in
terms of a faster recovery after stress, but did not prevent the stress response. This supports the
idea that music treatments may have beneficial effects on the human body, but suggests that
since the current study measured stress immediately after the stressor, the full impact of the
music on participants’ stress response may not yet have been realized (Thoma et al., 2003).
Limitations
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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This research study contradicted most prior research in the topic of music and stress,
showing no statistically significant relationship between the type of music and the tempo on
stress reduction. Findings showed that the type of music and the tempo all had a very similar
effect on stress, though without a control group, the impact of music overall cannot be
quantified. Since this study represents a major outlier against the body of prior research,
significant attention must be paid to limitations of the study methods and participants, and more
research is required to provide a more complete picture of the relationship between music and
tempo at reducing stress levels.
The largest and most significant limitation of this study was the selection of the
participants and the skewed sample that resulted from the procedure. This experiment utilized a
convenience sample of undergraduate university students, with no way to increase
generalizability of age or gender. Due to the non-representative sample, consisting of
predominantly females and young adults, it is uncertain as to what extent the results represent a
true lack of significance between the variables. Further, because no control groups were utilized
and all groups were exposed to music, it is possible that music reduced stress, only in equal
measure from the baseline. This study cannot claim a lack of reduction in stress; it simply shows
a lack of difference in stress response between music types.
Another limitation is that a possible confounding variable, ethnicity was not considered
during this experiment. Participants’ were not asked their ethnicity and it was not obtained
through any other method. Had this information been present it could have been a potential
factor in reducing stress levels.
Many experiments chose to use different procedures to ensure that the environment was
stressful for participants, but similar procedures to invoke severe stress were not feasible as part
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
17
of this study. Participants described the conditions of this test as moderately difficult, a fact that
could lead to an error in the results since it may be more difficult to reach statistical significance
or detect an effect at stress reduction. Another limitation is the fact that the stressor logic-based
test was not a validated measure and has not been used in the past to induce stress, so there is a
lack of assurance that the stressor actually induced stress in the participants without some sort of
physical measure of stress (e.g. cortisol or heart rate).
Implications
This study shows no evidence to support the existing theory that music can act as a
treatment to reduce stress. While this may be the result of a small sample size that makes it
difficult to achieve statistical significance or the result of selection bias, it may represent true and
valid differences between the perceptions of the younger generation as compared to the general
population. The findings of this study contradict prior studies on the relationship between music,
tempo, and stress reduction, but it does support previous research that has shown differences in
age, education, and gender in stress reduction therapies.
The implication of this is significant, because it presents the possibility that younger
individuals may be inherently more stressed than the older generations, which could have
significant effects on their perceived stress levels even after exposure to the music treatment.
Another important implication of this study presents is that gender may play an important role in
perceived stress levels. It is well known that women are more likely than men to report having a
great deal of stress, so this study may suggest that women are not as effective at reducing stress
as quickly as men, or that the perception of stress reduction is not as significant.
Future Directions
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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In this study, variables such as gender, age, and education have unclear relationships to
the results because there was no way to account for their effects within a small, gender-skewed
population. It would be useful to test the validity of their relationship using a more representative
population. This would also allow for analysis of other relationships, such as the correlation of
ethnicity and stress levels. There is no basis for comparison and it is uncertain whether the lack
of statistical significance represents a true characteristic of these sub-populations.
It is important for future studies to utilize a more representative sample with a more
diverse cross-section of participants, to control for the confounding of demographic factors on
the effects of the type of music on reducing stress. It would be beneficial to use alternate
sampling methods for future research that capture a more complete view of the population.
Another possible direction for future studies would be to analyze the role of ethnicity in
the interaction between music and stress. Taking into account this demographic variable, which
may be a potential confounding variable, allows for more precise and accurate connections
between ethnicity and the impact of music as a stress reducer. Future directions of study have the
possibility to contribute to previous research in the area by taking into account demographic
variables such as age, gender, education, and ethnicity.
In the current research, classical music was not significantly more effective than heavy
metal music at reducing stress levels and the effect of sedative music was roughly the same as
that of stimulative music. Although these findings are not consistent with previous studies in the
field, they may signify a valid description of the relationship between musical characteristics and
stress reduction in the younger, university-educated, or female sub-groups that call for further
research. The findings look to new possible directions that have not been previously considered
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
but could change our understanding of how personal characteristics shape the way people
perceive and experience stress.
19
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
20
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Sciences, 999, 374-376.
Knobloch, S., & Zillman, D. (2002). Mood management via the digital jukebox. Journal of
Communication, 52(2), 351-366.
Labbe, E., Schmidt, N., Babin, J., & Pharr, M. (2007). Coping with stress: The effectiveness of
different types of music. Applied Psychophysiol Biofeedback, 32, 163-168.
Mockel, M., Rocker, L., Stork, T., Vollert, J., Danne, O. … & Hochrein, H. (1994). Immediate
physiological responses of healthy volunteers to different types of music: cardiovascular,
hormonal and mental changes. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 68, 451-459.
Nater, U. M., Abbruzzese, E., Krebs, M., & Ehlert, U. (2006). Sex differences in emotional and
psychophysiological responses to musical stimuli. International Journal of
Psychophyiology, 62(2), 300-308.
Smith, M. (2008). The effects of a single music relaxation session on state anxiety levels of
adults in a workplace environment. Australian Journal of Music Therapy, 19, 44-65.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lusherie, R. E. (1970). The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory:
Test Manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
Standley, J. M. (1992). Meta-analysis of research in music and medical treatment: Effective size
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
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as a basis for comparison across multiple dependent and independent variables. In R.
Spintge and R. Droh (Eds.), MusicMedicine. St. Louis: MMB, Inc., 364-378.
Thoma, M. V., La Marca, R., Bronnimann, R., Finkel, L., Ehlert, U., & Nater, U. M. (2013). The
effect of music on the human stress response. PLOS One, 8(8), e70156- e70156.
Voss, J. A., Good, M., Yates, B., Baun, M. M., Thompson, A., & Hertzog, M. Sedative music
reduces anxiety and pain during chair rest after open-heart surgery. Pain, 112, 197-203.
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
23
Appendix A
Test Difficulty and Projected Grade
Participants will rate from a scale of 0 (least difficult) to 10 (most difficult) the overall difficulty
of the test, in addition to a self-projected grade.
Date: ______/________/_________
Gender: M / F (circle one)
Time: ______________________________
Age: ________
Year: _________
1. Indicate on the scale below, the overall difficulty in which you perceived the test to be upon
completing it.
2. Indicate in the space provided below, your self-projected grade. In other words, write down
the grade you expect to have on the test.
Expected Grade: _________________
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
24
Appendix B
State Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, Gorsuch, and Lushene, 1964)
Read each statement and select the appropriate response to indicate how you feel right now, that
is, at this very moment. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on any
one statement but give the answer which seems to describe your present feelings best.
1
2
Not at all
A little
3
4
Somewhat
Very Much So
1. I feel calm
1
2
3
4
2. I feel secure
1
2
3
4
3. I feel tense
1
2
3
4
4. I feel strained
1
2
3
4
5. I feel at ease
1
2
3
4
6. I feel upset
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
8. I feel satisfied
1
2
3
4
9. I feel frightened
1
2
3
4
10. I feel uncomfortable
1
2
3
4
11. I feel self confident
1
2
3
4
12. I feel nervous
1
2
3
4
13. I feel jittery
1
2
3
4
7. I am presently worrying
over possible misfortunes
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
25
14. I feel indecisive
1
2
3
4
15. I am relaxed
1
2
3
4
16. I feel content
1
2
3
4
17. I am worried
1
2
3
4
18. I feel confused
1
2
3
4
19. I feel steady
1
2
3
4
20. I feel pleasant
1
2
3
4
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
26
Appendix C
Logic-Based Questionnaire
1) You have only an 8-liter jug and a 3-liter jug. Both containers are unmarked. You need
exactly 4 liters of water.
How can you get it, if a water faucet is handy?
2) What can you add to 1,000,000 and always get more than if you multiplied the 1,000,000 by
the same value?
3) Determine the common saying depicted in these verbal picture puzzles.
a. DECI
SION
b. ANOTHER
ONE
4) What is the 50th number in this sequence? Explain how you got your answer.
5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, 41, …
5) Determine both one-word answers.
The floor of ship or boat,
They walk on me at sea;
Where there’s a C, make it an S,
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
At school you sit on me.
What am I? _______________
6) The reason he gave the press for leaving his job was illness and fatigue. That wasn’t exactly
the truth and it wasn’t exactly a lie.
Why did he leave?
7) Determine both one-word answers. Another word for sick, Your forehead is quite hot; Now
put an H in front, A mountain I am not.
What am I?______________
8) Use the clues to solve the puzzle. A duck, a goose, a goat, and a horse all entered the barn at
different times one day last week. 1) A mammal entered the barn first. 2) The duck entered
before the goose. 3) The goose entered ahead of the horse.
Who entered the barn first? ____________
9) Determine the common term or phrase depicted in these verbal picture puzzles.
a. CHIEDITOREF
b. T 2222
27
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
28
10) Use the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division symbols once each to make these
equations true.
a. 600 __ 200 __ 400 __ 300 __ 200 = 200
b. 200 __ 300 __ 600 __ 400 __ 200 = 200
11) How many 4-digit numbers are there such that the thousands digit is equal to the sum of the
other 3 digits?
Details and assumptions
The number 12 = 012 is a 2-digit number, not a 3-digit number.
12) A grid with 3 rows and 52 columns is tiled with 78 identical 2 x 1 dominoes. How many
ways can this be done such that exactly two of the dominoes are vertical?
Details and assumptions
The dominoes will cover the entire board. They are not allowed to jut over the board, or overlap
with each other.
Rotations and reflections count as distinct ways.
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
29
13) The sum of two numbers is 18. Twice the smaller number decreased by 3 equals the larger
number. What are the two numbers?
14) If the product of a number and –7 is reduced by 3, the resulting number is 33 less than twice
the opposite of that number. What is the number?
15) You’ve taken four tests in your class and made an 89, 92, 78, and 83. The final is worth two
test grades. What do you need to make on the final to make an A in the class for the semester?
16) A 20% concentrate is to be mixed with a mixture having a concentration of 60% to obtain 80
liters of a mixture with a concentration of 30%. How much of the 20% concentrate and the 60%
concentrate will be needed?
17) While setting problems on Brilliant, Calvin absentmindedly eats through 7 bags of gummy
worms. He looks up the ‘nutritional information’ on the bag, and notices that each bag of gummy
worms contains 6 servings, and each serving has a whole number of calories. Given this, Calvin
calculated that he consumed just under 1000 calories. What is the maximum possible number of
calories that Calvin would have consumed from these 7 bags of gummy worms?
18) Over the summer, Calvin, along with a group of friends, went to Ten Flags (an amusement
park). There are 10 “must-ride” roller coasters. At the end of the day, everyone rode exactly 5 of
these 10 rides (due to dastardly long lines). Furthermore, any 2 different people rode at most 2
rides in common. What is the highest possible number of people in this group?
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
Details and assumptions
Calvin is to be included in the count. You should not exclude him from amusement parks.
19) If 2x2 - 25x - 13 = 0, what is x?
20) With the equation: y = -2 - 2x + 6x2 - 8x3, if x = -7, what is y?
30
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
31
Appendix D
Letter of Information
Title of Research: The Effects of Music on Stress Levels and Performance
Research Investigators:
Justin Yee (Undergraduate Student)
E-mail: jyee33@uwo.ca
Lucas Kazman (Undergraduate Student)
E-mail: lkazman2@uwo.ca
Alina Sutter (Graduate Student and Teaching Assistant)
Office: SSC 7333, E-mail: asutter@uwo.ca
This study is investigating the stress level and performance responses of to music. For
this study you will be asked to participate in a series of tasks which our evaluators will carefully
guide you throughout the course of the experiment. You will be asked to prepare yourself for a
standardized test given to all participants assessing your academic proficiency. In addition, you
will be placed in a music-listening group in which you will be completing the standardized test
while listening. Upon completion of the test, a short, follow-up questionnaire will be given to
you. The total estimated time for this experiment is 15-20 minutes. This research project is being
conducted as part of the requirements for psychology 280E.
There are no known risks to participating in this study. Participation in this study is
strictly voluntary and therefore you may discontinue participation at any time or refuse to answer
any questions that make you feel uncomfortable.
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
32
All information gathered in this study is kept confidential and anonymous and is used for
research purposes only. Analyses of the data will be conducted on group responses and not
individual responses. Once the study is completed, the data is kept securely stored. You will
receive written feedback concerning the purposes of the study at the end of the study and will
have the opportunity to ask any questions at that time.
If you have questions about this research, and/or if you want to obtain copies of the results of this
research upon its completion, please contact Justin Yee (email: jyee33@uwo.ca), Lucas Kazman
(email: lkazman2@uwo.ca , Will Mayo (email: wmayo@uwo.ca ) or Alina Sutter (email:
asutter2@uwo.ca, office: SSC 7333).
If you have any questions about the conduct of this study or your rights as a research participant
you may contact the Director, Office of Research Ethics, The University of Western Ontario,
519-661-3036 or email at: ethics@uwo.ca.
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
33
Appendix E
Debriefing Form
Title of Research: The Effects of Music on Stress Levels and Performance
Investigators:
Justin Yee (Undergraduate Student)
Lucas Kazman (Undergraduate Student)
Will Mayo (Undergraduate Student)
Alina Sutter (Graduate Student and Teaching Assistant)
The purpose of the current study was to determine whether music listening has any
beneficial impacts through stress-reducing effects. Previous literature suggests that prolonged
experiences of stress are related to poor individual health and as a result, the development of
stress management and stress prevention approaches has become an important area of current
research efforts. Our study attempts to further understand the relationship between music on
stress levels and performance among human participants.
In this study participants were asked to undergo a stress-inducing activity by describing
to each participant that they will be evaluated on a standardized test. The purpose of this task was
to provide a baseline measure of the individual’s stress levels so that we can compare them with
stress levels assessed from the individual after the music-listening treatment.
The questionnaires provided throughout the course of the study are used to assess each
participant’s current stress levels and later we analyze the results from the different treatment
groups and determine whether a relationship exists between music and overall performance on
test scores.
The Effects of Music on Perceived Stress Levels and Performance
34
Your responses and participation are much appreciated. Without your involvement, it
would not be possible to conduct this research. Thank you.
To ensure confidentiality, your responses will be assigned a coding number and your
name will never be associated with your responses.
If you have any further questions about this research please contact Justin Yee (email:
jyee33@uwo.ca), Lucas Kazman (email: lkazman2@uwo.ca), Will Mayo (email:
wmayo@uwo.ca ) or our Teaching Assistant, Alina Sutter (email: asutter2@uwo.ca, office: SSC
7333). Thank you for helping us with this project--your time is much appreciated.
If you have questions about your rights as a research participant, you should contact the
Director of the Office of Research Ethics at ethics@uwo.ca or 519-661-3036.
References:
Labbe, E., Schmidt, N., Babin, J., & Pharr, M. (2007). Coping with stress: the effectiveness of
different types of music. Applied Psychopathology and Biofeedback, 32(3-4), 163-168.
Jiang, J., Zhou, L., Rickson, D., & Jiang, C. (2013). The effects of sedative and stimulative
music on stress reduction depend on music preference. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 40(2),
201-205.
Scheufele, P. M. (2000) Effects of progressive relaxation and classical music on measurements
of attention, relaxation, and stress responses. Journal of Behavioural Medicine, 23(2),
207-280.