© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
CHAPTER
8
The Information-Processing Approach
The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory - learning that has persisted
over time.
2
Stages of Memory
ENCODING
STORAGE
Getting
information
into memory
Retaining
information
over time
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
RETRIEVAL
Taking
information
out of storage
Monitor
(Retrieval)
Sequential Process
3
Flashbulb Memory
Flashbulb memory - a highly emotional event
can cause a clear, strong, and persistent
memory.
4
(c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Characteristics of Information-Processing
The information-processing approach to
learning emphasizes that children manipulate
information, monitor it, and strategize about it.
Thinking: To perceive, encode, represent, and store
information from the world
Self-modification: Represented by metacognition,
“knowing about knowing”
Change Mechanisms:
Encoding – Getting information into memory
Automaticity – Processing information with little effort
Strategy Construction – Discovering new processing
procedures
Generalization – applying info to other settings
8.5
What Is Attention?
Attention is the focusing of mental
processes
• Sustained attention
• Selective attention
• Divided attention
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
The Information-Processing Approach
Memory
What Is
Memory?
Encoding
Retrieval and
Forgetting
Storage
8.7
(c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Enter the Debate
Should teachers require students to
engage in rote memorization?
YES
NO
8.8
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Encoding
REHEARSAL
DEEP PROCESSING
Consistent repetition of
information over time
Deeper processing,
better memory
ATTENTON
Concentrate and Focus
ORGANIZATION
CONSTRUCTING
IMAGES
Aided by chunking
ELABORATION
Adds to distinctiveness
8.9
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Getting Students to Pay Attention
Encourage
attention and
minimize
distraction
Be
interesting
Use cues and
gestures
for important
material
Focus on active learning
and be aware of
individual differences
Use media and technology to make
learning enjoyable
8.10
11
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable
unit.
1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
chunk the number and see if you can recall
it easier. 1776 1492 1812 1941.
Encoding Summarized in a
Hierarchy
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory
8.13
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Memory’s Time Frames
Sensory Memory – Retains information for a fraction of
a second until 2 seconds
Short-Term Memory – Limited capacity; retain for 30
seconds without rehearsal
Long-Term Memory – Unlimited capacity over a long
period of time
8.14
15
Sensory Memory – Retains information for a fraction of
a second until 2 seconds
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long
Working Memory
Short-Term Memory – Limited
capacity; retain for 30 seconds
without rehearsal
7 ± 2 bits of info
Working memory, a new
name for short-term
memory.
George Miller
16
17
Chunking
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Developmental Changes in Memory
8.18
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Baddeley’s Model of Memory
8.19
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory
involves learning an action, and the individual does not
know or declare what she knows.
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
20
21
Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic
system that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield & Nicolson archives
22
Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient
HM remembers everything before the operation
but cannot make new memories. We call this
anterograde amnesia.
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Memory IntactNo New Memories
Surgery
Implicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that are
declarative (explicit) but he can form new
memories that are procedural (implicit).
A
B
C
HM learnt the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he
plays it he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played
the game.
23
24
Cerebellum
Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain
that processes implicit memories.
(c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Retrieval
Primacy Effect
items at the beginning
remembered best
Serial Position
recall better at the beginning
and end of list
Specificity
associations form cues
Recall
previously learned information,
as in fill-in-the-blank
Recognition
identify learned information, as
in multiple choice
8.25
26
Serial Position Effect
1. TUV
2. ZOF
3. GEK
4. WAV
5. XOZ
6. TIK
7. FUT
8. WIB
9. SAR
10. POZ
11. REY
12. GIJ
(Primacy Effect)
Better recall
Poor recall
(Recency Effect)
Better recall
27
Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like
anchors that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
fire
smoke
Fire Truck
heat
truck
red
hose
28
Context Effects (encoding specificity)
According to the principle of encoding specificity, the
way we code a word during original learning
determines which cues will remind us of that word
later.
Context Effects
29
(c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Forgetting
Inability to retrieve information, due to
poor encoding, storage or retrieval.
Forgetting is due to:
Encoding Failure
Storage Decay
Lack of Retrieval Cues
Interference
31
32
Forgetting as Interference
33
Proactive
interference –
problem
driving in
England after
learning in US.
34
Retroactive Interference
Sleep avoids retroactive interference thus
leading to better recall.
Why do we
forget?
35
(c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Improving Memory
• Promote understanding
• Assist organization of knowledge
• Teach mnemonics
–
–
–
–
Method of loci
Rhymes
Acronyms
Keyword
8.36
(c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
The method of loci – First learn a list of places, such
as “my desk, the door of my room, the corridor, . . .”
Method of Loci
List of Items
Imagined Locations
Charcoal
Pens
Bed Sheets
Hammer
.
.
.
Rug
Backyard
Study
Bedroom
Garage
.
.
.
Living Room
Rhymes
• “i before e except after c
• thirty days hath September, April,
June, and November
• The alphabet song
40
Pegword Method
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
One is a bun
Two is a shoe
Three is a tree
Four is a door
Five is a hive
Six is sticks
Seven is heaven
Eight is a gate
Nine is a swine
Ten is a hen
Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid
especially when combined with semantic
encoding.
Both photos: Ho/AP Photo
41
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43
Acronyms
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie,
Superior
PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply,
Divide, Add, Subtract
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue,
Indigo, Violet
Keyword Method
Carta = letter
45
Memory Construction
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating
misleading information into one's
memory of an event.
46
Misinformation and Imagination
Effects
Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when
questioned about the event.
Depiction of the actual accident.
47
Misinformation
Group A: How fast were the cars going
when they hit each other?
Group B: How fast were the cars going
when they smashed into each
other?
48
Memory Construction
A week later they were asked; Was there any
broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported
more broken glass than Group A (hit).
Broken Glass? (%)
50
40
32
30
20
14
10
0
Group A (hit)
Group B (Smashed into)
Verb
49
Source Amnesia
Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the
wrong source
50
False Memories
False Memory Syndrome
A false but strongly believed memory of
traumatic experience sometimes induced
by well-meaning therapists.
Constructed Memories
if false memories (lost at the mall, or drowned in
a lake) are implanted in individuals, they
construct (fabricate) their memories.
Don Shrubshell
51
(c) 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Information Processing Theory
Theory into Practice
Ms. Blackwood has assigned her students 20
spelling words to learn for the week. She notices
that most of her students have no problems
remembering how to spell the first few and the last
few words, but many struggle with those in the
middle of the list.
Q: Why might students have an easier time
remembering how to spell the first and last few
words, but struggle with those in the middle of the
list? Explain.
8.52
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
The Information-Processing Approach
Expertise
Expertise and
Teaching
Expertise and
Learning
Acquiring
Expertise
8.53
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Experts…
 Have superior recall, use “chunking” of information
 Organize around important ideas and concepts
 Demonstrate effortless retrieval by taking the time to
formulate a plan
 Are flexible rather than having a rigid, fixed routine
 Though talented, develop learning and study strategies
• Spread out learning
• Ask questions/take good notes
• Use a study system
8.54
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
The Information-Processing Approach
Metacognition
Strategies and
Metacognitive
Regulation
Developmental
Changes
The Good
InformationProcessing
Model
8.55
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Metacognition
“Knowing about knowing”
Metacognitive Knowledge
Monitoring and reflecting on one’s current or
recent thoughts
Metacognitive Activity
Students consciously adapt and manage their
thinking strategies during problem solving and
purposeful thinking
8.56
Learning strategies
• Distributive practice versus massed practice
• Question oneself (reflection)
• Take good notes – summarize, outline, concept
maps
• Use a study system – PQ4R
Preview
Question
Read
Reflect
Recite
Review
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Improving Metacognitive Skills
Improvement of metacognitive skills
results from:
1. Developmental changes as student matures
cognitively
2. The Good Information-Processing model that
includes specific learning strategies, knowing the
similarities and differences in multiple strategies,
and the benefits of using them
3. Monitoring the effectiveness of strategies and
modifying when necessary
8.58