AP US Government & Politics
Review Part III
Political Parties, interest groups, and mass
media: mechanisms that facilitate the
communication of interests and preferences
by like-minded citizens (10-20%)
1. Political parties and elections (including their functions,
organization, historical development, and effects on the political
process)
2. Interest groups (including PACs)
A. The range of interests that are or are not represented
B. The activities of interest groups
C. The effects of interest groups on the political process
D. The unique characteristics and roles of PACs in the political process
3. The mass media
A. The functions and structures of the media
B. The impact of media on politics
Political parties and elections
Where do political parties exist?
A.
B.
C.
D.
As a label, in voters’ minds
As an organization, recruiting and
campaigning for candidates
As a set of leaders, organizing and trying to
control legislative and executive branches
US parties have become weaker in all three
arenas
How U.S. political parties differ from
those of other Western nations
a. Less control over nominations:
primary elections
b. Less control over campaigns:
candidates get funds independently
c. Less control of elected members
3 Major Causes of these differences
a. Decentralization of federal system
b. Regulation of parties by state and federal
laws
c. Separation of legislative and executive
powers
History of Political Parties
1. Founding (1789-1820)
•Parties created and constituted loose
caucuses of political notables in various
localities – with New England strongly
Federalist (followers of Hamilton) and much of
the South Republican (followers of Jefferson)
•Political participation was limited and
nominations for most local offices arranged
rather casually.
2. Jacksonian (1824-Civil War)
•Party convention invented (replaced caucus
composed of members of Congress) nominate
presidential candidates
•Two-party system emerged;
•Political participation a mass phenomenon with
parties built from bottom up
3. Civil War and Sectionalism – 1930’s
•
Comprehensive organizational form and
appeal developed – both parties tried to
straddle slavery issue
• Republicans dominated nationally but
competition at local level
• Both parties split into two factions, stalwarts
and progressives
4. The Era of Reform: New Deal –
Present
•
Reforms to reduce political corruption - also
weakened parties
• Use of primaries to replace nominating
conventions
•
Favored nonpartisan elections at local level
•
Strict voter registration
•
Civil Service reform to eliminate patronage
National Party Structure Today
A.
Parties similar on paper
1.
2.
3.
4.
National convention has ultimate power; meets
every 4 years
National committee composed of delegates from
states; manages party between conventions
Congressional Campaign Committees support
party’s congressional candidates
National chair manages daily work
National Party Structure, continued
B. Party structures diverged in 1960s & 1970s
1. RNC became more bureaucratic
2. DNC became more factionalized
C. National Conventions
1. Selection of delegates different
2. DNC delegates became more liberal, RNC more
conservative
3. DNC rules to include more women and minority
delegates
4. Conventions today only ratify primary voters’
selections and never actually choose nominee
Types of Party Organizations
a. The Machine: use of tangible
incentives such as money, political
jobs, opportunity to get favors from
government, and characterized by
a high degree of leadership control
over member activity. Examples:
Chicago, Philadelphia, Albany
b. Ideological parties: Principle above
all else, spurns money incentives,
today exist as social movements
within the political party such as the
Christian Coalition. Examples:
independent 3rd parties like the
Socialist, Libertarian, Right to Life,
Prohibition
c. Solidary groups: Join for social
reasons = fun. Advantages of
such groups is they are neither
corrupt or inflexible.
Disadvantage is they don’t work
very hard.
d. Sponsored parties: Created
or sustained by another
organization. Example: Detroit
Democrats which has been
developed, led, & financed by
the political arm of the United
Auto Workers
e. Personal followings: Devotion
to politician and family. Work to
get person elected. Example:
Kennedys
The Political Spectrum
Declining Partisan Loyalties
Two-Party System
A.
B.
C.
Very few other countries have two-party
system
Evenly balanced nationally, not locally
Why has two-party system endured?
1.
2.
Winner-take-all and plurality systems
State laws make it difficult for minor parties to get
on ballot
Minor parties and their impact
on American politics
a. Ideological Parties: Parties professing a
comprehensive view of American society
and government that is radically different
from that of the established parties. Most
have been Marxist in outlook, but some are
quite the opposite, such as the Libertarian
Party. Examples: Socialist Party (19011960’s), Communist Party (1920’s to
present), Libertarian Party (1972-Present)
b. One-Issue Parties: Parties seeking a single
policy, usually revealed by their names, and
avoiding other issues. Examples: Free Soil
Party (to prevent the spread of slavery
(1848-1852); American or “Know Nothing
Party” – to oppose immigration and Catholics
(1856); Prohibition Party – to ban the sale of
liquor (1869-Present); Women’s Party – to
obtain the right to vote for women (19131920)
c. Economic-protest Parties: Parties,
usually based in a particular region,
especially involving farmers that protest
against depressed economic
conditions. These tend to disappear as
conditions improve. Examples:
Greenback Party (1876-1884), Populist
Party (1892 –1908)
d. Factional Parties: Parties that are created by a split
in a major party, usually over the identity and
philosophy of the major party’s presidential candidate.
Examples: Split from Republican Party = Bull Moose
Progressive Party (1912); La Follette Progressive
Party (1924); Split from Democratic Party = States
Rights (“Dixiecrat”) Party (1948); Henry Wallace
Progressive Party (1948); American Independent
(George Wallace) (1968); Split from both Reps and
Dems = Reform Party (Ross Perot)
The Effect of Third Parties on Vote Distribution
Presidential Nominating Process
A.
B.
Parties must appease extreme wings during
nominating process, but need a moderate
candidate to win an election
Delegates not representative of voters—
Democratic delegates much more liberal,
Republican much more conservative
How do Presidential and
Congressional races differ?
A. Presidential races are more competitive than congressional races
(Congress--no term limits and tough to run against an incumbent)
B. Fewer people vote in non-Presidential elections = Congressional
races must be appealing to the more motivated, partisan voter
C. Members can do things for constituents and get credit that Pres.
can’t do
D. Congressional candidate can deny responsibility for mess in
Washington
E. Power of presidential coattails has declined
Running for President
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Getting mentioned
Time: Reagan, 6 years; may need to resign from
office
Money: Individuals $1,000, PACs $5,000 to each
candidate in each election
Candidates must raise $5,000 in 20 states in
individual contributions of $250 or less to qualify for
federal matching funds (PAC contributions don’t
count)
Organization: large staff
Running for President, continued
F. Strategy and Themes
1. Incumbents defend record; challengers
attack
2. Setting a tone (positive/negative)
3. Develop a theme
4. Target voter
Primary vs. General Campaigns
A.
B.
C.
Different voters, workers, media attention
Activists vote in primaries, more ideological
Must be conservative or liberal enough to get
nominated, then run from the center to get
elected
The General Election Campaign: each
Presidential hopeful must
•Target the campaign – strategy to achieve electoral majority
•Take advantage of political assets – incumbency
•Develop an image the voter responds to
•Attract the support of divergent groups
•Use issues and events for their own advantage
•Take advantage of the media as a primary means of
communicating with the public
•Use the campaign organization and workers to get the vote out
(labor, religious groups, etc.)
Parties Aim Their Campaigns to the Middle
Two Kinds of Campaign Issues:
Position and Valence
A Valence Issue is one on which voters distinguish
rival parties by the degree to which they associate
each party or candidate with conditions, goals, or
symbols the electorate universally approves or
disapproves of. Examples are economic prosperity
and political corruption.
Two Kinds of Campaign Issues:
Position and Valence
A Position Issue is one on which the rival parties or
candidates reach out for the support of the
electorate by taking different positions on a policy
question that divides the electorate. Examples:
Slavery or not, high tariffs or low tariffs.
Impact of TV, Debates, and Direct Mail
on Campaigns
A. Spots (paid advertising) can help little-known candidates
become known
B. Voters get more information from spots than from news
broadcasts
C. Visuals (news broadcasts) cost candidates nothing
D. Debates usually an advantage only to challenger;
incumbent or frontrunner runs risk of gaffe
E. Direct Mail made easier by computers; mailings can be
targeted; result in donations
Money
A.
B.
C.
D.
Presidential primaries partly funded with public
money
Presidential general elections: all public money
unless candidate chooses not to accept
Congressional elections: all private money
Reform following Watergate scandal
1. Federal Election Campaign Act 1974: limits on individual
donations; created PACs, with limit on donations; primary
and general elections counted separately for donations
Money, continued
E.
F.
G.
Supreme Court ruled in Buckley v. Valeo that limits
could not be set on individual spending of own money
in campaigns unless federal money received
“Soft money”—unlimited contributions to party
organizations, not candidates, can only be used for
“party building” but really used to promote campaigns
Soft money banned in 2002; law recently held
unconstitutional
Money, continued
H.
Advantages of incumbency
1.
2.
3.
4.
Fundraising: PACs contribute to incumbents
because they get re-elected
Can provide constituent services
Can use free mailings
Can get free publicity
What decides elections?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Party identification most commonly used factor
Issues, especially economy
1.
Retrospective voting: based on how things are going and have been
going; usually helps incumbent unless economy is bad
2.
Prospective voting: based on how things will go—used by few
voters
Campaigns make a difference
1.
Emphasize themes over details
2.
Primaries have become more important
Winning coalitions
1.
Democratic: Blacks, Jews, Hispanics not as much; Catholics,
unionists, southerners have been departing coalition
2.
Republican: business and professional people; farmers
What is meant by a realigning election?
The issues that separate the parties change, and so the kind
of voters supporting each party change. There have been
5 realignments:
a. 1800 – Jeffersonian Republicans defeated the Federalists
b. 1828 – Jacksonian Democrats came to power
c. 1860 – Whig Party collapsed and Republicans under
Lincoln came to power
d. 1896 – Republicans defeated Wm. Jennings Bryan
e. 1932 – Democrats under FDR came into power
Shift of presidential voting patterns in
the South
The party alignment among white southerners has
gone from six-to-one Democratic in 1952 to about
50-50 Democrats and Republicans. If the trend
continues, it will constitute a major realignment in
a region of the country that is growing rapidly in
population and political clout.
Interest Groups
• Special interest groups including lobbyists and
political action committees have been one of the most
criticized components of the political process.
•Definition of an interest group: A public or private
organization, affiliation, or committee that has as its
goal the dissemination of its membership’s viewpoint.
The formation of Special Interest
Groups
•Common Interest
•Formal organization created
•Goals defined by organization
•Lobbyists hired and PACs formed
•Attempts to influence legislators
Why are Interest Groups are so common in the US?
a. The more cleavages, along religious, cultural, and
regional lines in society, the greater the variety of
interests that will exist.
b. American constitutional system allows for a federal,
decentralized system and therefore multiple points
groups can access the government
c. Political parties are weak and interest groups can
therefore gain strength.
Two Kinds of Interest Groups
a. Institutional: organizations that represent other
organizations. Lawyers/PR firms represent
interest of company in Washington – Like GM,
Chamber of Commerce
b. Membership: Groups supported by activities and
contributions of individuals = Sierra Club, NAACP
Incentives to join interest groups
a. Solidary: Sense of status, pleasure, companionship that
arises out of meeting together in small groups. Face-toface contact important, so organize in small local groups =
League of Women Voters, PTA, Rotary Club
b. Material: Receive money or other valued group or service
from membership = AARP supply low cost insurance,
discount drugs, travel
c. Purposive: Appeal of stated goals to recruit members
How interest groups raise funds
3 sources of funds:
a. Foundation Grants: Environmental Defense Fund
supported almost entirely by grants from foundations like
the Rockefeller Family Fund
b. Federal Grants and Contracts: Cutbacks in 1980’s hurt
interest groups
c. Direct Mail: Letters to targeted recipients
The activities of interest groups
a. Information: most important influence because
officials need detailed material; most valuable
when issue is narrow or complex
b. Public Support: Grassroots lobbying aimed at
generating public pressure. Politicians try to avoid
controversy. Target legislators with whom agree
c. Money and PACs: Money is one of the least effective
ways interest groups advance their causes because of
regulations and ideological PACs consume almost of all
the money raised with massive direct-mail solicitations.
d. “Revolving Door”: federal government official takes job in
private industry
e. Causing trouble: disruptive tactics like protest marches
and picketing
How the government regulates interest
groups
a. Federal lobbying law – must register as
lobbyists, names of clients, income and
expenditure, issues on which they worked -don’t apply to “grassroots” groups
b. Tax code and campaign finance laws – if
organization does serious lobbying, will lose
its tax-exempt status
The Media
Bad News About Presidential Candidates
Increases
The 4 periods of journalistic history in
the U.S.
a. Party Press: Early years of republic --Papers
subsidized by political parties; addressed small
elite; ruthlessly partisan
b. Popular Press: changes in society and
technology, like high speed rotary press, made
possible rise of a self-supporting, massreadership daily paper; publishers could
become powerful political forces, sometimes
associated with yellow journalism
c.
Magazines of opinion: Reaction of middle class
to yellow journalism led to less sensationalism
and more nonpolitical coverage
d. Electronic Journalism: Radio & TV allows for
direct politician voter link; get “sound bite”,
selective viewing, and need for dramatic to get
coverage; Radio 1920s, TV 1940s
Influence on politics that the national media
can have
a. Gatekeeper: Influence what becomes an issue
and for how long; example = crime, Vietnam
b. Scorekeeper: Make or break politicians
reputations; examples = Carter, Gary Hart,
George McGovern
c. Watchdog: examining political and personal lives;
examples = Gary Hart, Bill Clinton, Gary Condit
Regulation of the content of television and
radio
a. Equal time rule: If a station sells time to one
candidate, it must be willing to sell equal time
for opposing candidate
b. Right to reply rule: If a person is attacked on a
broadcast other than in a regular news program,
that person has the right to reply over the same
station.
c. Political editorializing rule: If a broadcaster
endorses a candidate, the opposing candidate
has a right to reply
Routine, selected, and insider stories
a. Routine: public events regularly covered by
reporters, comparatively little of bias
b. Selected: Public events knowable to inquiring
reporters but not usually reported, bias of
reporter/editor may figure prominently in
selection
c. Insider: Events not usually public, revealed
because someone inside reveals them, problem
of the motive of the leaker
The impact of the media on politics
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Studies of media impact on elections generally inconclusive
Local newspapers often endorse Republican candidates
National conventions scheduled to accommodate television
Candidates win party nomination via media exposure
TV influences political agenda
Newspaper readers see bigger contrast between candidates
than TV viewers
TV news affects popularity of presidents
Government and the news
A.
B.
C.
D.
Teddy Roosevelt: systematically cultivated
press
FDR: press secretary cultivated press; FDR
had press conferences
Press secretary today: large staff
Coverage of Congress never equal to
coverage of president; live cameras in House
1978, Senate 1986