Research Methods
Leadership 389
Ethics in Research
 As behavioral scientists, there are two
domains of ethical responsibility:
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Truthfulness, integrity, etc. in the collection,
interpretation and dissemination of data and
theory.
Humane treatment of participants
Integrity
 This is a general issue in all sciences.
It is the scientist’s responsibility to
present the data and not alter,
fabricate or suppress it.
 When fraudulent data are published, it
is eventually discovered because
others try to replicate the data.
 When integrity escapes a psychologist
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Fabricated 4 published studies
Banned from receiving federal funds for 5
years
She resigned from her university in June, 2001
Nazi War Crimes
 Sterilization Research
 Pain/Disease &
Performance
 Trials at Nuremberg
Nazi War CrimesSterilization Research

Three experiments involving sterilization were in
progress when World War II ended in 1945.
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Dried plant juice was put into flour that was fed to the general
population. This was supposed to sterilize women
predominantly.
Men stood at a counter to complete forms while being exposed,
without their knowledge, to sterilizing doses of X-radiation.
Intra-uterine injections of a silver nitrate solution were given to
women, without their consent, during routine physical
examinations
Nazi War Crimes
Disease & Research
 Between 1942 and 1943, about 729 people were
subjected to “vaccine” experiments and 154 died.
 In addition, other prisoners served as a "passage
group." -researchers would inject the virus into
prisoners. When these people developed the acute
illness, their blood was removed and injected into
other prisoners.
The 10 Points of the Nuremberg
Code
1. Participation must be voluntary, and subjects should have
the capacity to give consent. Further, subjects should be
fully informed of the purposes, nature, and duration of the
experiment.
2. The research should yield results that are useful to society
and that cannot be obtained in any other way.
3. The research should have a sound footing in animal
research and be based on the natural history of the
problem under study.
4. Steps should be taken in the research to avoid unnecessary
physical or psychological harm to the subjects.
5. Research should not be conducted if there is reason to
believe that death or disability will occur in the subjects.
The 10 Points of the Nuremberg
Code
6. The risk involved in the research should be proportional to
the benefits to be obtained.
7. Proper plans should be made and facilities provided to
protect the subject from harm.
8. Research should be conducted by highly qualified
scientists only.
9. The subject should have the freedom to withdraw at any
time if he or she has reached the conclusion that
continuing in the experiment is not possible.
10. The researcher must be prepared to discontinue the
experiment if it becomes evident that continuing will be
harmful to the subject.
Did the Nuremberg Code “suggestions”
impact research practices?
 Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital Study
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Study: The nature of the human transplant rejection
process
Injection of live cancer cells into patients who were
hospitalized with various chronic debilitating diseases
Researchers said that consent had been given orally,
but was not documented.
Further, patients were not told that they would receive
cancer cells because, in the view of the investigators,
this would frighten the patients unnecessarily.
Harvard Radiation Tests
 From 1946 to 1956, 19 boys who thought they were
participating in a science club were fed radioactive
milk by researchers who wanted to learn about the
digestive system.
 The experiments were performed at the Fernald State
School in Massachusetts. Researchers from Harvard
University and MIT fed radioactive forms of iron and
calcium to the boys, sometimes in their breakfast milk,
to study the body's ability to digest minerals.
The Tuskegee syphilis study
 399 black men with syphilis and 201 men
without syphilis, who served as the controls,
were the subjects.
 The men were recruited without informed
consent.
 Participants were misinformed and told that
some of the procedures done in the interests of
research (e.g., spinal taps) were actually "special
free treatment" and told that they had “bad
blood.”
 Participants were prevented from obtaining
treatments for the disease as they became
available
The Tuskegee Syphilis Study
The study continued until the first accounts of it appeared in
the national press in 1972, at which time an ad hoc advisory
panel was formed by the government to give advice on how
to assure that such experiments would never again be
conducted.
The Tuskegee Syphilis Study
 The government continues
to pay millions of dollars
yearly to surviving subjects
and the families of
deceased subjects.
2 years later, National Laws
Established, 1974
The Belmont Report
 The primary task of the
National Commission was to
identify the ethical principles
that would guide all research
involving humans. The
Belmont Report -- Ethical
Principles and Guidelines for
the Protection of Human
Subjects was published in
1978.
 The principles of The
Belmont Report govern all
research supported by the
U.S. government today.
Current APA Standards
3 basic factors
1. Respect for Persons: This principle acknowledges the
dignity and freedom of every person. It requires obtaining
informed consent from research subjects (or their legally
authorized representatives).
2. Beneficence: This principle requires that researchers
maximize benefits and minimize harms associated with
research. Research-related risks must be reasonable in
light of expected benefits.
3. Justice: This principle requires equitable selection and
recruitment and fair treatment of research subjects.
Ethical Treatment of Human
Participants
 Informed consent

Explain the procedures to be used and any details
that the participant needs to know to decide
whether or not to participate. Extra steps are
needed here for minors and others who might feel
coerced into participating
 Individual freedom to withdraw
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Individuals have the right not to participate and may
withdraw at any time even if they do consent to
participate.
Ethical Treatment of Human
Participants
 Use of deception
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Are there aspects of the study that are concealed
from the participant? Is this necessary for the
conduct of the study? Does this increase the risk?
 Protection from physical/psychological harm
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Researchers cannot knowingly put participants in
dangerous situations
 Confidentiality of data
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Data and the identity of participants are confidential
and not to be revealed.
Ethical Treatment of Human
Participants
 Evaluate risk/benefit ratio
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Risk/Benefit ratio. Are there psychological and/or
physical risks to the participant from the study?
What are the benefits to the participant or society
from the research?
 Debriefing
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Any aspects not explained in the initial informed
consent should be explained in debriefing. The use
of deception should be explained.
Idealized Risk-Benefit
Ethical Evaluation
Risk of Doing
High
Don’t Do
Do
Low
Low
Benefit of Doing
High
Research Ethics Activity
 Textbook pages 58-59:
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Group 1: Activity Question 1
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Group 2: Activity Question 2
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Group 3: Activity Question 3
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Group 4: Activity Question 5