Methods of Observation
Psychology: Chapter 2, Section 3
Methods of Observation
• We all observe how people act, and often make
generalizations from what we see
• However, our observations are rather haphazard
(not very systematic), and also we tend to observe
things that only confirm our preexisting notions
• Thus we cannot draw scientific conclusions based
only on our unstructured observations
• These observations may help us form research
questions or tentative hypotheses, but in this
section we will learn about more systematic and
scientific methods of observation
We seem to enjoy observing other people, whether it be
from a park bench or restaurant, or even reality TV shows
The Testing Method
• Psychologists sometimes use psychological tests to
learn about human behavior
• There are several types of psychological tests
• Intelligence tests measure general learning ability
• Aptitude tests measure specific abilities and special
talents, such as musical ability
• Skills tests measure vocational interests
• Personality tests measure character traits and
temperament, and screen for anxiety or depression
There are many different kinds of
psychological tests
The Case Study Method
• A case study is an in depth investigation of an
individual or a small group
• Because case studies go so in depth about one
particular person, the researcher can really learn a
lot about that person.
• Psychologists use what they learn in a case study to
generalize broader principles that apply to the
larger population
• Case studies describe, but don’t predict
• Sigmund Freud developed many of his theories
from case studies of people he spoke with
An Example of a Case Study
• This is a typical
case study, written
about a man who
had recently
attempted suicide
• Note that the
details are
specifically about
him, and not about
all men in general
who attempt
suicide
• This sort of detail is
characteristic of a
case study
Longitudinal Method
• In the longitudinal method, researchers study
individuals for a long period of time– following
them around for years or even decades,
checking in maybe once or twice a year
• By using this method, psychologists can
observe how individuals change over time
• However, there is no guarantee that
participants will be able to remain available
for 5, 10, or 15 years
In the longitudinal method, you can
observe an individual growing over time
Cross-Sectional Method
• The cross-sectional method also examines changes
over time, while avoiding some of the pitfalls of
longitudinal studies
• Instead of following a set of individuals over a number
of years, researchers select a sample that includes
people of different ages
• The researchers then compare the behavior of the
participants in the different age groups
• However, one major disadvantage of comparing
different individuals is that researchers can’t be certain
when differences were caused by developmental
changes vs. the individuals just being different people
Cross Sectional studies examine different people in different
stages of life to try to extrapolate how life progresses
Naturalistic-Observation Method
• The naturalistic observation method,
sometimes called field study, involves a
researcher observing subjects in their natural
habitat
• The researcher does not interact with the
subjects, as that would contaminate the
results, rather he or she simply observes from
afar
Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey conducted
field studies of chimpanzees and gorillas
Laboratory-Observation Method
• Sometimes it is not possible or practical to
observe in a natural setting
• A laboratory is a more formal place designed for
observation and experimentation, but may not be
as sterile a room as usually envisioned
• For example, an aquarium could serve as a
laboratory for a lake for observing fish behavior
• In a laboratory, the environment can be more
easily controlled, which is a very useful feature
for experiments
In a famous experiment in a laboratory by A. Bandura,
children were observed to be more aggressive to a
“Bobo doll” after seeing others model aggressiveness
Adult modeling
aggressiveness
Children imitating
aggressiveness
Analyzing Observations
• When analyzing and interpreting the results from
observations, psychologists may measure
correlation
• The correlation is a measure of how closely one
thing is related to another
• The more closely two things are related, the higher
the correlation
• There might be a correlation between height and
shoe size– generally, the taller someone is, the
larger their shoe size
• There does not seem to be much correlation
between height and intelligence
Positive and Negative Correlation
• A positive correlation is when one goes up, the other
goes up
• There is a positive correlation between the time you
spend studying and how well you do in school
• Generally, the more you study, the better you will do.
There will be exceptions, but that is the general trend
• A negative correlation is when one goes up, the other
goes down
• There is a negative correlation between stress and
health– the more stressed you are, the worse your
health will be
• Things that have no relationship, such as IQ and shoe
size, are said to have no correlation
Correlations resemble slopes on an x-y axis, and may
be positive, negative, or no correlation. The tighter
the data around the line, the stronger the correlation
Correlation is NOT Causation
• Correlation describes relationships, but does NOT reveal cause and
effect
• Just because two things are related does not mean that one
causes the other
• Sometimes there is a hidden factor that may cause both things to
occur
• As ice cream sales increase, the rate of drowning deaths increases
sharply.
• Therefore, ice cream consumption causes drowning.
• The aforementioned example fails to recognize the importance of
time and temperature in relationship to ice cream sales.
• Ice cream is sold during the hot summer months at a much greater
rate than during colder times, and it is during these hot summer
months that people are more likely to engage in activities involving
water, such as swimming.
• The increased drowning deaths are simply caused by more
exposure to water-based activities, not ice cream. The stated
conclusion is false.
Organic food sales and the rate of autism seem
to have a very strong correlation, but no one is
suggesting that one causes the other
Assessment
• Complete #1-3 on page 40