1e.
Chapter 10
Followers and
Leadership
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
 Identify the various theoretical perspectives and
paradoxes related to follower motivation.
 Appreciate the significance of adult learning
theories in understanding followership.
 Explain how the dyadic relationship between
leaders and followers influences the leadership
process.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–2
Motivating Followers
• Motivation
 An individual’s inner forces of energy that initiate,
shape, sustain, and direct his or her behaviors and
actions.
• Motivation Theories
 Seek to explain why goals are sought after and the
factors that influence goal-attainment efforts.
 Effort
 Performance
 Reward
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10–3
Theories of Motivation
• Work Motivation Theories
 Seek to explain how follower behavior is initiated and
shaped and the different factors that contribute to
directing and sustaining it.
 Content
theories assume that all followers in work
organizations possess a common set of alleged
basic needs.
 Process
theories explain work motivation in terms
of the cognitive process followers go through
before and during the behavior—that is, how an
individual thinks about her or his work situation.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–4
View CD
• Go to the CD-ROM and click on Focus on
Followers and then choose the followers and
groups button.
 In a video interview with Keith Grint, he says, “You
can’t be a leader if you don’t have any followers. That
is what followers do—make leaders.”
 Do you agree with this view? Discuss its implications
in the context of leader–follower roles.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–5
Followers with Needs
• Content Models of Work Motivation
 Assume that unsatisfied needs create an internal
tension or a state of deficiency that motivates a
change in behavior so as to satisfy those needs.
 Assume that followers share a common set of basic
needs and attempt to identify (prescribe) which needs
will prompt a particular behavior.
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 McClelland’s Three Learned Needs Theory
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–6
Content Theories of Motivation
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Proposed that people have five basic needs,
arranged in a hierarchy of preeminence such that
once a basic need has been satisfied, the individual is
free to make the next higher-order need dominant. .
 Prepotency: behaviors are directed toward
satisfying lower-level needs before any others.
 A satisfied need is not is a motivator of behavior.
 Leaders need to know where followers are located on
the hierarchy and ensure that lower-order needs are
satisfied before appealing to higher-order needs.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–7
Content Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
• Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory
 Suggests that some aspects of work motivate and
sustain work behaviors and performance, while other
aspects have a negative influence on follower
behavior and performance.
 Motivators:
intrinsic factors related to job content
that make followers feel good about their work.
 Hygienes:
extrinsic factors in the work
environment that can cause work dissatisfaction
and do not contribute to motivation.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–8
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
of Work Motivation
Source: Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959). The Motivation to Work. New York: John Wiley.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Table 10.1
10–9
Content Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
• McClelland’s Three Learned Needs Theory
 Assumes that followers are motivated to satisfy six
basic human needs: achievement, power, affiliation,
independence, self-esteem, and security.
 Posits that followers will accomplish the most when
they have a high need for achievement.
 Suggests that leaders should assess their followers’
needs and then design motivational strategies that
permit followers to satisfy their needs.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–10
Content Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
• Alderfer’s Erg Theory
 Posits that followers’ needs can be divided into three
basic groups: existence (E), relatedness (R), and
growth (G) on a bi-directional continuum (rather than
a hierarchy) of needs.
 Assumes that an individual will refocus on a
previously fulfilled lower-order need when frustrated
in fulfilling a higher-order need, making the
unsatisfied higher-order need less important.
 Suggests that work team leaders can motivate
followers by satisfying relatedness needs.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–11
Content Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
• Limitations of Content (Need) Theories of
Motivation
 Each of the theories is conceptually flawed and
culturally bound to the individualism of Western
culture.
 The theories do not provide leaders with a clear,
unambiguous means of predicting specific follower
behavior to satisfy a particular need.
 Empirical findings often contradict their assumptions
that the same needs motivate all individuals,
regardless of their sex or ethnicity.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–12
Reflective Question ▼
• Inhabitants of other countries speak different
languages, are widely different in their religious
beliefs and cultural values for individualism,
material gains, self-development, community
activity, and their social and environmental
needs.
 To what extent does Maslow’s theory of needs reflect
North American, white male values?
 Is Maslow’s theory culture-bound?
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–13
Followers With Choices
• Process Theories of Motivation
 Focus on how followers make conscious choices that
lead to a specific work behavior.
 Emphasize the role that cognitive processes play in
determining an individual’s level of work motivation.
 Help leaders motivate followers by clarifying the link
between effort and reward.
 Equity theory
 Expectancy theory
 Goal-setting theory
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–14
Process Theories of Motivation
• Equity Theory
 Premises that an individual compares the efforts and
rewards of other followers with his or her own efforts
and rewards, resulting in feeling of equity (equivalent
ratios) or inequity (nonequivalent ratio).
 Equity comparisons made be made internally or
externally.
 Follower perceptions of inequity motivate behaviors to
redress the balance and affect satisfaction with and
the perceived value (valence) rewards.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–15
Adams’s Conditions of Equity and Inequity
Source: Adams, J. S. (1965). “Inequality in Social Exchange. “In L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 2. New York: Academic Press. Quoted by Fincham, R. and Rhodes,
P. (1988). The Individual Work and Organization. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, p. 84.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Table 10.2
10–16
Process Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
• Expectancy Theory
 Proposed that work motivation is contingent on the
perceived link between levels of effort and reward.
 Assumes individual followers rationally assess the
costs and benefits of alternative courses of inputs and
outcomes and choose the course with the highest
reward.
 Three basic parts:
 Effort-performance expectancy (E → P)
 Performance-outcome instrumentality (P → O)
 Valence of the outcomes/rewards (V)
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–17
Process Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
• Expectancy Theory
 Proposed that work motivation is contingent on the
perceived link between levels of effort and reward.
 Assumes individual followers rationally assess the
costs and benefits of alternative courses of inputs and
outcomes and choose the course with the highest
reward.
 Three basic parts:
 Effort-performance expectancy (E → P)
 Performance-outcome instrumentality (P → O)
 Valence of the outcomes/rewards (V)
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–18
Expectancy Theory (cont’d)
• The formula for the calculation of work motivation is
as follows:
Effort is the follower’s motivation to exert effort in her or his
paid work.
E is expectancy, I is the instrumentality, and V is the valence
of the outcome(s).
The summation sign, ∑, indicates that effort is affected by the
instrumentality and valence of a range of possible work and
nonwork outcomes that might result from job performance.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–19
Expectancy Theory: Example
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10–20
Process Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
• Goal-Setting Theory
 Assumes that followers can motivated through
participatory goal setting and communicating accurate
information on work performance.
• Management by objectives (MBO)
 An application of goal-setting theory in which a leader
sets specific and challenging goals for a specified
time period, periodically reviews progress toward
these goals, and provides feedback on goal
accomplishment before setting performance goals for
the next time period.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–21
Process Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
• Goal-Setting Theory’s Assumptions
 Challenging goals produce higher performance than
less challenging goals.
 Specific challenging goals produce higher
performance than no goals or vague or general goals
such as “Do your best.”
 Feedback on goal attainment combined with goal
setting will produce higher performance
 Follower participation in goal setting produces
higher performance.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–22
Followers as Learners
• A sustainable advantage depends on followers
learning more quickly than competitors do.
 Work-related learning is the process of acquiring or
assimilating knowledge, skills, and feelings which
results in a change in an individual’s or group’s
behavior.
 Leaders play the roles of teacher, designer, and
steward in building organizations that foster and
facilitate learning.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–23
Learning and Follower Behavior
• Learning
 A relatively permanent change in behavior or human
capabilities that occurs as a result of study, practice,
or experience.
 Follower behavior that is rewarded is likely to be
repeated.
 To “teach” followers new knowledge, skills, or
behavior, the leader needs to determine what stimuli
the followers find most positive (and negative).
 Experience, insight, and observation foster follower
behaviors that are effective.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–24
Behavioral Perspective on Learning
• Reinforcement theory
 Emphasizes that followers are motivated to perform
or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes
associated with those behaviors.
 Positive reinforcement occurs when a pleasant
stimulus follows a behavior, increasing the
likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
 Negative reinforcement occurs when an
unpleasant stimulus or outcome is removed.
– Avoidance and escape
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10–25
Alternative Perspectives on Learning
• Cognitive perspective
 How individuals perceive, evaluate, represent, store,
and use information plays an important role in
learning.
 Insightful learning: insight into the problem as a
whole, occurs suddenly, is retained, and is transferred
to new situations.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–26
Alternative Perspectives on Learning
• Social-learning perspective
 People develop and learn by observing others
(“models”) and then encoding the experiential
information into memory to serve as a guide for later
behavior.
 Observational learning processes:
 Attention to the model’s behavior
 Retaining memory of the behavior
 Practicing the behavior’s motor action
 Having the motivation to learn
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–27
Adult Learning Theory
• Adult Learning as an Andragogical Concept
 Adults approach the learning process in a selfdirected manner, drawing on their experiences to help
them develop applicable competencies about what
they “need to know.”
 Characteristics of adult learners
 Independent, self-directing, mature and
experienced, motivated by what they need to know,
problem-centered, and internally motivated.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–28
Learning Theories in Practice
• Modern approaches to learning in organizations
contain elements of cognitive, behaviorist, and
andragogical concepts.
 Learning is a circular process with no start or finish;
all stages must be completed for learning to occur.
 Experience is central in the learning process.
 The process of follower learning and development is
both concrete and abstract, active and passive.
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10–29
Figure 10.2
The Experiential
Cycle of Learning
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Source: Based on Kolb, D. A.,
Rubin, I. M., and McIntyre, J. M.
(1974). Organizational Psychology:
An Experiential Approach.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
When was the last time you felt
that you really learned something?
Reflect on that occasion, and try
relating it step by step to the
experiential learning model shown
in Figure 10.2. REFLECTIVE
QUESTION
10–30
Reflective Question ▼
• When was the last time you felt that you really
learned something?
 Reflect on that occasion, and try relating it step by
step to the experiential learning model shown in
Figure 10.2.
 What conditions are most necessary for learning to
occur in the workplace?
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10–31
Reflective Questions ▼
• In Understanding Adult Education and Training, 2nd
ed. (2000), read Chapter 1, “A Framework for
Understanding Adult Learning and Education.”
• In Understanding Learning at Work (1999), read
Chapter 1, “Understandings of Workplace Learning.”
 How do these authors characterize the adult learner?
 From a leadership perspective, do you agree with the
statement that learning has become too important to be left
to in-house training departments?
 What are the implications of the different learning theories
for leaders?
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10–32
Leader–Follower Relationships
• Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
 Conceptualizes leadership as a process centered in
the dyadic relationship that develops between leaders
and individual work group members.
 In-groups of empowered participatory followers
 Out-groups of non-participating followers
 Improving the quality of dyadic relationships with
followers improves follower performance.
 The personal aspects (e.g., personality) of the leader
and the follower affect their relationships.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
10–33
A Two-Dimensional Taxonomy
of Follower Behavior
Source: Adapted from Kelly, R. E. (1992). The Power of Followership. New York: Doubleday/Currency.
Copyright © 2005 South-Western. All rights reserved.
Figure 10.3
10–34