IGES Project on Urban Environmental Management
Agenda of the 3rd Project Group Meeting
Urbanization, Industrialization and
Sustainable Development in Korea
- The Case Study on Ulsan Metropolitan
City
Prepared by
-Changsuk Kim ( Seoul City Univ., Ph. D )
-Hoiseung Jeong ( Korea Environment Insitute, Ph. D )
-Deokho Cho ( Univ., of Taegu, Ph. D )
–Dongkun Lee (Sangmyung Univ., Ph. D )
Dec. 2, 1999
This study is performing with the financial supports of the Institute of Global
Environmental Strategies.
<Table of Contents>
Ⅰ. Introduction
Ⅱ. Urban Development and its Evaluation System
Ⅲ. Urbanization and Environmental Problems in Korea
Ⅳ. Case study Ⅰ: Ulsan- Metropolitan City
Ⅴ. Case study Ⅱ: Ansan City
Ⅵ. Urban Environment Management System in Korea
VII. The Development Strategies for the Sustainable Urban Environments
<Appendix>
I. Introduction
1.Background of This Research
East-Asian Countries have experienced rapid economic growth,
industrialization, and urbanization. They also created several environmental
problems in local, national, and even global level. And then, the current
economic growth policy reaches some limitations environmentally in
sustaining an economic growth. Therefore, the goals of this research find a
new paradigm for the sustainable development economically, socially, and
environmentally in this area and suggests a new direction of economic
development for the developing countries.
Korea has influenced the economic growth of East Asia countries because she
is one of the most successful countries in terms of the economic development.
In another way she has been experiencing very serious environmental
problems due to negative impacts of a rapid economic growth. She changed
recently a growth strategy from an economic growth to a sustainable
development in order to solve environmental problems. Therefore, Korean
experiences will be helpful to solve environmental problems of other Asian
countries.
2. Scope of This Research
1. This research covers the Korean economic growth policy in macro system and
incentive structure. Based upon this policy, it notes Ulsan and Ansan
industrialization process. The former has focused on the building of heavychemical industrial complexes by the central government in order to promote the
national economy. Many inappropriate industrial facilities of the Capital Seoul
City are relocated in the latter
2). It examines the urbanization process in national and local levels, it identifies
a relationship between the economic growth and environmental pollution. It
also contains the urban environmental problems in Ulsan and Ansan. This
model will apply to the Ulsan and Ansan Case Study.
3). It develops the environmental indicators under the Driving Force- PressureState- Effect- Response Framework of the specific cities for applying to the
developing countries.
4). It will develop the environmental indicators for elaborating the sustainable
urban development model for the developing countries.
5). It finally will build a new model on the sustainable urban growth
management for solving the environmental problems in East-Asian Cities. And
it also suggests a new paradigm for the economic growth and environmental
problem solving.
3. The Goal of This Research
Based upon the above researches, it will develop a model of sustainable urban
growth management policy for the East-Asian sustainable urban development
policy.
The Flow Chart of This Research
The
Korean
Experiences on the
Industrialization,
Urbanization, and
Environmental
Policy
-Nation Level
-Local Level (Ulsan,
Ansan)
-Environmental
Problems
- Governance on
the Environmental
Issues
Developing of the
Environmental
Indicator under the
DPSER Framework
-Driving Force
-Pressure
-State
-Effect
-Response
The Case Study for
the Building of A
Sustainable Urban
Growth
Management Policy
in Korea
-Economic
Development (Ulsan
and Ansan)
-Industrial Policy
-Environmental
Assessment Model
Building of A New
Sustainable
Development Model in
East-Asian Cities
- Economic Growth
- Industrial Policy
-Governmental Policy
-Citizen Participation
-Environmental
Management
Ⅱ. Urbanization ＆ Industrialization in Korea
1. National Land Use Circumstances in Korea
The South Korea national land is 94.229 ㎢. National land use is composed
of forest (65.8 percent), agriculture (22.1 percent), industrial (4.1 percent),
public sector (2.4), and other areas (7.15 percent). The urban areas have
been increased dramatically, residential areas 2.9 times, public sector
areas 2.8, and especially industrial sites have increased 34.6 times for the
last 50 years.
• Figure 1. Korean Land Use Pattern
2. The Korean Economic Growth Policy
In 1960s Korea was a desperate and poor country due to the Korean
War and social unrest such as the student movement in 1960 and the
military coup in 1961. However, Korea became a member of the
Organization of the Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
which its members are composed of the developed counties in 1996.
The Korean national income as a whole grew at an average annual rate
of 7.9 percent during the period from 1963 to 1995 (Kim and Hong,
1997). It comes from several different factors such as a strong
government policy for economic development, highly skilled labor and
low wage, individual's willingness to overcome poverty, and the "Can
Do Spirit for Economic Growth."
An authoritarian military government built the Economic Development
Five Years Plan in 1962. This plan was directed by a strong and
authoritarian government and lasted until the 1980s (see Table 1).
<Tabel .1> The Goal and Policy Issues of Economic Development Five Years Plan
CategoryFirst Plan
(62-66)
Economic Goal
Growth
Rate(%/Y)
7.8
Second Plan
(67-71)
9.6
Policy Issue
Fix of a
Modernization
vicious cycle of Industrial
of socioStructure
Economic
Acceleration of
circumstance self-supporting
s
economy
Building of
selfsupporting
economy
base
Supply of
Self-sustaining
energy
of foods and green
Adjustment
forest

of national
High level
economy
industrialization
Investment ofDevelopment
SOC
of technology and
human resources
Third Plan
(72-76)
9.7
Fourth Plan
(77-81)
5.8
Balances of
growth,
stabilization, and
balance
Implementati
on of selfsupporting
economy
Attainment
of self growth
Structure
 Increase of
equality by
social
development
Improvement
of technology
and efficiency
Selfsustaining of rice
Improvement
of international
balance
Growth of
heavy-chemical
industry
Efficient use of
national land
resources
Balance of
international
accounts
Investment to
technology
development
Acceleration
of New Town
movement
Improvement
of industrial
structure
Fifth Plan
(82-86)
8.6
Sixth Plan
(87-91)
9.8
Stabilization Harmonization
of economy
of autonomy,
stabilization, and
Renovation
of technology
welfare
Renovation Autonomy of
of
economy and
government
equity of society
function
Opening of
economy and
internationalizati
on
Control
of

Emphasizing the
inflation
economic equity
Improvement

Control to land
of financial
speculation
system
Acceleration of
New Town
Energy
saving policy
movement
Building of
Rural
a new
development and
relationship
improving living
between labor conditions
and capital
• Figure 2. The Change of Population and Urbanization Rate
(Figure 1). Economic Growth and Environmental Problems
Resources Use
Material Consumption
Environmental Pressures
Environmental Problem Cycle of Before ESSD
Carbon cycle, Nitrogen cycle, Water cycle
Environmental problem cycle of after ESSD
GNP (time)
Source: Velliga, Pier(1998), Industrial Transformation Research, p.2,
Figure 2. Economic Growth and Resources (revised by an author).
Figure 7. Development Framework of DSPER Structure
DEFINITION OF FRAMEWORK
P
D
D
envi.
society
fieldeconomic
law,system
S
S
R
OECD
R
UNCSD
P
P
S
S
Japan
I
R
R
P
S
E
R
This study
TARGETS(Netheland)
OECD
effect of
human
environment environment
responsible UNCSD Japan
TARGET This study
environment
activity pressure
state
system
S
worse
2.Structure and Composition of the Model
•
The relation between industrialization and environment
depends on both national factors and region-specific factors.
However their influence varies at the stage of the model.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
National
Driving Force
○
Pressure
△
State
Effect
△
Response
○
Strategic
○
Region Specific
○
○
○
○
○
○
4. Definition and functions of environmental
indicators
•
In general, "An indicator is a parameter, or a value derives from parameters, which points
to/provides
information
about/describes
describes
the
state
of
a
phenomenon/environment/area with significance extending beyond that directly associated
with a parameter value.
•
Within the DPSER framework, five types of indicators can be noted:
•
Definition
and functions
of environmental
indicators
.Indicators
of driving
force describe
parameters
which people can influence on the
environment under the framework between the human and nature. They contain the urban
activities and utilization of resources by the people such as government leadership and
policy factors
.Indicators of pressure note parameters that are influenced by the indicators of driving force.
They generally include the land use change and load on the environment.
. State indicators indicate the “state” of sustainable development that contain the
environmental status.
.Effect indicators include the disease, desertification and extermination of bio-diversity due
to the environmental problems.
.Response indicators note policy options and other responses to the changes in the “state” of
sustainable development.
•
•
•
•
• Figure 8. The Framework of DSPER Structure
Driving
Force
Act, Policy,
Planning
Socio, econo
mic
land
development
Pressure
State
Effect
Human
Activity
Ecosystem
E ff ec t o n
H um an B o dy
quantity
disease
population
quality
transport
distribution
M at er ia l
D am ag e o f
p ro pe rt y
change of
landuse
Environment
Pressure
Landuse
Industralization
resource,
energy
urbanization
changes of landuse
each the
classification of land
category.
air
water quality
waste
nature
diseaster
E ff ec t o n
E co sy st e m
pressure
increase
Response
Re-use of
Resources
waster recycling
Qualitative
Improvement of
Environment
conservation creation
of biotope
nvironment
Management
Establishment of
act, polich, etc.
U se o f
R es ou rc e s
energy
consumption
water
consumption
Response indicators affect effect, state, pressure and driving force indicator
<Table 2 > Components of environmental indicators in study areas
Driving
Force
I ndividualI ndica
t ors
Cate Intermediate
Pop ulat ion
Human
Transp ort at ion
Activities Socio-Economic Policy
Policy
and
Nat ional Develop ment Policy
Finance
Land use p olicy
Pressure
Indust rialp olicy
Resource and energy p olicy
Land
use Urbanizat ion rat e
Land use ch ange by cat egory
change
Resource use Amount of energy consump tion
Wat er resource use
Productivity Manufact uralp roduct s
Quant it y
Qualit y
Ecosystem
Dist ribut ion
Environmenta Air qualit y
l Pressure Wat er Qualit y
State
Rain (wat er)
Ocean
Hazard wast e
Global worm
Soil
Quality of Amenit y
Life
Awareness Cit izen
Government
on
Indicators
Pop ulat ion Densit y
Th e Number of Aut omobile
Ch ange of Socio-Economic Policy
Ch ange of nat ional develop ment p olicy
Land use ch ange
Ch ange of indust rialp olicy
Ch ange of Resource and energyp olicy
Urbanized area/ urban areas
Land use ch ange by cat egory
Amount of Gasoline and Pet roleum
Pip e line wat er
Manufact uralp roduct iviies
Green area in urban area
Plant s
Densit y ofp lant s
Isolat ion
Cont inut y
NO2
SO2
BOD
Surface Wat er
Ocean p ollut ion
Amount of Solid and h azard wast e
CO2
Cu
Pb
Beaut iful Dist rict
Hist ory and Cult ure
Cit izen’ s awareness on environment
Government ’ s awareness on environment
Effect
Effect on
Material
Deterioratio
n of living
Damage on
ecosystem
Climate
Resources
recycling
Improvement
of
Environment
management
Di sease
Nat uald amage
Det eriorat ion of amenit y
L oad on environment
Di sease Causes
F lood ing
Di st rict s
H ist ory and Cult ure
E xt erminat ion of wild
Acid rain
W ast e recy cling
W at er recy cling
E nergy recy cling
Plant space
Acid raind ays/ rainingd ay
R at e of wast e recy cling
W at er recy cling
H eat ing sy st em
G reen prot ect ion
amimals
Response
G reen area
Park
L aw, cont rol and regulat ion on
E nvironment al law and syst em
environment
E nvironment ed ucat ion and informat ion ? E nvironment ed ucat ion
E nvironment organizat ions
E nvironment al officials
E nvironment alt ech nology
Environmenta Do m est ic environment alt ech nology
Pipe line wat er and wast e wat er
Environmenta W at er
Solid wast e
W ast et reat ment t oth e energy consumpt ion
l facilities L and use
L and use relat ed policy
Policy
and
Air qualit y
Clean air qualit y policy
planning on T ransport at ion
T ransport at ion relat ed policy
environment Clean wat er
Clean wat er relat ed policy
Internationa I nt ernat ion cooperat ion ont ech nology
I nt ernat ional cooperat ion
l
E nvironment alt ech nology cooperat ion
cooperation
E xch ange oft ech nology
Ⅳ. DPSER Framework for the Ulsan Metropolitan City
1. General Circumstances of the Ulsan Metropolitan City
UMC is one of the fastest industrialized cities within the country or in the
world since 1962 when she became a city. She is a symbolic city of Korean
development in terms of industrialization, urbanization, and even
environmental problems. The Korean government nominated Ulsan as a
special industrial area and established an industrial center by the 'Special
Law of National Industry Site Development' (Corporation of Industry Site
Development, 1987). Based upon this law, Ulsan National Industry
Complex was constructed.
. A city is a town where more than 50 thousand peoples live.
2. DPSER Framework of the Ulsan Metropolitan City for the Sustainable Development
2.1. Driving Force of the UMC
UMC is one of the fastest industrialized cities within the country or in the world
since 1962 when she became a city.
She is a symbolic city of Korean development in terms of industrialization,
urbanization, and even environmental problems.
The Korean government
nominated Ulsan as a special industrial area and established an industrial center
by the 'Special Law of National Industry Site Development.'
Based upon this law, Ulsan National Industry Complex was constructed.
At the initial stage of industry complex development, its population and size were
respectively 85 thousands and 176.04 km2. However, its population and size are
separately 991 thousands and 1,055.55 km2 in 1996. The number of population has
increased about 12 times and urban size six times during 34 years
The development process of UMC is lined up with the building process of industry
complexes. The stages of development of industrial complex are as follows:
The first stage (1962-1966) focused on the building of an industry site and
infrastructure such as port, road, and water provisions for the Ulsan Industry Site.
The Change of Population and Area of the UMC
Year
Populations
1962
1965
1968
1972
1975
1978
1982
1985
1988
1992
1995
1997
211235
222965
249131
275355
368612
482150
593042
670358
743184
898630
969196
1013070
Increasing
Rate (%)
1
1
2.1
5.9
4.6
4.3
4.5
1
3.9
5.1
2.4
2
Population
Households Area(㎢)
Density
209.5
32238
1008.32
221.1
38123
1008.32
247.1
44916
1008.32
274.2
53704
1004.22
366
76738
1007.18
476.6
99930
1011.58
585.5
130964
1012.82
638.4
163443
1050.08
705.8
184974
1050.92
854.4
262970
1051.81
918.4
289295
1055.35
959.6
309945
1055.7
The Number of Cars of in Korea(Unit: 1,000 Cars)
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991
Cars 1309 1611 2035 2660 3395 4248
P/C
31.5 25.8 20.6 16.0 12.6 10.2
Auto
664 844 1118 1559 2075 2728
Truck 473 546 635 769 925 1077
Bus
155 200 260 323 384 428
S.Car
18 20 22
9 11 15
1992
5231
8.4
3461
1262
484
25
1993
6274
7.0
4271
1449
528
26
1994
7404
6.0
5149
1645
582
29
1995
8469
5.3
6006
1817
613
33
1996 1997
9553 10413
4.8
4.4
6894 7586
1963 2072
663 719
34
36
The Number of Cars of the UMC
Year
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Total Automobiles
20376
8896
26803
12204
37275
18878
53002
30335
70877
43097
94515
62540
119357
82446
144705
104078
174642
132598
209803
160752
241600
188845
262394
207053
Trucks
8510
10567
12770
16112
19443
22303
25230
28375
28727
35303
38141
39938
Buses Special Cars
2091
879
3040
992
4521
1106
6115
440
7775
562
8835
837
10006
1675
10612
1640
11630
1688
12054
1694
13038
1576
14053
1350
The Growth of GNP, GDP and GNP per Capita in Korea
Categories
GNP
GNP
Deflator
GDP
GNP/P
GNP/P
Unit
billion \
90=100
billion \
thousand
\
Dollar
1970
1980
1990
1994
1995
1996
1997
2788 36857 178262 303773 348979 386438 416018
7.7
50.2 100.0 129.4 137.0 142.0 145.7
2771
87
253
38148 179539 305970 351975 389813 420987
971
4165
6805
7739
8485
9046
1597
5883
8467
10037
10543
9511
The second (1967-1971) made an effort to construct the heavy chemical
industrial complex. A refined oil industry along with chemical fertilizer
industries was built in the water front areas such as Jangsengpo and Yeochun.
In order to support these facilities, social overhead capital such as port, road,
and steam power plant also was installed in this era.
The third period (1972-1976) was a leaping stage in the development of Ulsan
industry. Ulsan's representative industries such as automobile and
shipbuilding were constructed in Yumpo and Mipo industry complexes during
this period.
In the fourth stage (1977-1981), agglomeration and scale effects of these
industries was gradually generated and several industries such as iron,
automobile, and lumber were located in order to enjoy these side effects.
An industry belt was established in the fifth period (1982-1986) because
existing industry complexes were continuously grown in terms of productivity
and scale, and new industry complexes like Unyang and Yongyun were built.
And then Ulsan has grown the biggest heavy-chemical industry complex city in
South Korea in terms of amount of products and scale.
In another aspect, Ulsan has tried to reduce environmental problems through
changing the structure of industrial base from petroleum chemical plants to
automobile and shipbuilding plants, which are relatively a low pollution
industry. Eventually, main industries gradually has changed from the
petroleum chemical industry to the automobile and shipbuilding since 1987
(UMC, 1997).
As a result, two national industrial complexes and several local industrial
complexes were located in UMC as the Figure 1. The productivity is
corresponded to 18.9 percent in that of nationwide manufacturers and 21.1
percent in amount of nationwide export customs (UMC, 1997). Finally, Ulsan
was eventually grown to the symbol of Korean economic development
Figure 1. The Location of Ulsan Industry Complexes
<Table 2> Economic Status of Ulsan Metropolitan Area in 1996
Category
Population
Area
Number
of
Manufacturers
Number
of
Employees
Amount
of
Products
Export
Import
Marine Cargo
Unit
1,000
Person
Km2
1,000
Person
Million
($)
Million
($)
Million
($)
1,000
Ton
Nation
45,545
UMC
991
Ratio to Nation(%)
2.18
99,268
101,934
1,055
1,022
3,242
150
4.63
429,556
46,000
10.71
129,715
16,079
12.40
150,339
20,001
13.30
719,792
128,435
17.84
Note
1.0
Source: Ulsan Commercial Chamber (1998), The Economic Status of Ulsan Metropolitan City
in the Circumstances of Ulsan Commercial and Industrial Sites (p.2).
1). Each number is extracted from the Korean Census Survey on the Mining and Manufacturing Industry
2). 1 US dollars ($) = 900 Korean Won
Five Employees or more
2. The Environmental Pressure in UMC
These explosive urbanization and industrialization however created several
environmental problems such air quality, sewage water, soil, and river and
ocean pollution in UMA. Especially, Ulsan's environmental problems are
serious more than that of any other city because most manufacturing plants
are pollution-related industries such as petroleum-chemical or automobile
and shipbuilding industries.
Source industries of environmental pollution are like Table 3.
<Table 3>. Source Industries of Environmental Pollution in 1998
35
Automobiles
289
Soil
248
Poison
209
Bad Smell
791
(286)
Specified
Waste
Materials
Water
770
(330)
Noise
Air
Sub Total
2,018
(616)
Dust
Number of Source industries
170
(122)
448
262,394
Source: This data is provided by the Department of Environmental Protection in UMC in 1998
( ) is the number of source industry of two national industry complexes (Ulsan and Onsan)
Population Increase and Urbanization Rate in Korea and 7 Large Cities
Total Pop
Urban Planning Area
Urban Pop
Yea
1983
(A)
39,172
(B)
...
Administration Area
Non-Urban
Pop
(C=A-B)
...
Urban Pop
Rural Pop
(D)
28,583
(E=A-D)
10,589
Urbanization Rate(%)
Urban Planning Administratio
Area
n Area
Criteria
Criteria
(B/A*100)
...
(D/A*100)
73.0
1984
40,430
...
...
29,599
10,831
...
73.2
1985
40,467
...
...
30,086
10,381
...
74.3
1986
41,161
...
...
30,936
10,225
...
75.2
1987
42,125
...
...
32,048
10,077
...
76.1
1988
42,053
...
...
32,963
9,090
...
78.4
1989
42,641
...
...
34,560
8,081
...
81.0
1990
43,390
...
...
35,558
7,832
...
81.9
1991
43,800
...
...
36,330
7,470
...
82.9
1992
44,568
...
...
37,319
7,249
...
83.7
1993
45,077
...
...
37,969
7,108
...
84.2
1994
45,512
...
...
38,429
7,083
...
84.4
1995
45,981
39,852
6,129
39,334
6,647
86.7
85.5
1996
46,349
40,378
5,971
39,571
6,777
87.1
85.4
1997
46,813
40,839
5,974
40,216
6,597
87.2
85.9
Seoul
10,389
10,389
-
10,389
-
100.0
100.0
Busan
3,865
3,865
-
3,840
25
100.0
99.4
Taegu
2,502
2,534
-32
2,483
19
101.3
99.2
Inchon
2,446
2,403
43
2,378
68
98.2
97.2
Kyongju
1,324
1,340
-16
1,324
-
101.2
100.0
Taejun
1,323
1,329
-5
1,323
-
100.5
100.0
Ulsan
1,013
898
115
910
103
88.6
89.8
Land Use Plan in 7 Large Cities(㎢)
Cities
Seoul
Busan
Taegu
Inchon
Kyongju
Taejun
Ulsan
Total
605.90
1,052.85
1,001.71
1,061.00
744.22
600.41
1,143.11
Residential
302.80
123.31
120.65
112.98
78.73
78.65
72.86
Commercial
28.00
24.19
18.85
23.98
12.06
9.52
8.12
Industrial
29.00
50.71
37.28
59.14
21.62
13.07
68.75
Others
246.10
854.64
824.93
864.69
631.81
499.17
993.36
Land Use by Land Category in the UMC
Year
Residential Industrial
Land
Site
1992 17,038,608.9 20,904,979.8
School
Road
Site
1,759,584.6 10,136,320.6
Rail Site
Mineral
Spring
1993 17,728,857.9 22,157,958.5
1,828,071.7 10,666,393.7
970,257.0
1994 18,693,527.3 22,538,706.5
1,885,437.2 11,189,996.5
981,885.4
1995
32,407,211.8 34,211,758.0
2,589,016.2 27,883,555.2
1,907,667.1
6.0
1996 33,053,219.3 36,023,164.7
2,646,916.2 28,153,278.1
1,919,436.1
6.0
1997 34,287,932.7 38,205,124.0
2,668,356.5 28,545,551.1
1,918,853.1
6.0
1,127,808.9
The GDP and Energy Use in Korea
Gas Consumption in the UMC
Distillate
fuel Oil
Heavy Oil
207,596
-
Bunker C
Oil
-
Others
-
1992
Total
327,434
Gasoline
80,093
Kerosene
39,745
1993
349,350
96,881
42,665
209,804
-
-
-
1994
392,088
121,658
41,135
229,295
-
-
-
1995
447,623
147,920
41,852
257,851
-
-
-
1996
785,101
257,805
86,874
440,422
-
-
-
1997
927,593
265,344
203,503
458,746
-
-
Distillate
fuel Oil
Heavy Oil
207,596
-
Bunker C
Oil
-
Others
-
1992
Total
327,434
Gasoline
80,093
Kerosene
39,745
1993
349,350
96,881
42,665
209,804
-
-
-
1994
392,088
121,658
41,135
229,295
-
-
-
1995
447,623
147,920
41,852
257,851
-
-
-
1996
785,101
257,805
86,874
440,422
-
-
-
1997
927,593
265,344
203,503
458,746
-
-
Industry, Agriculture and Industry Complexes
(Unit:m3, number, person)
Number of
Complex
Total Area
Number of
Establishments
1992
2
261
13
Number of
Workers
1,200
1993
2
261
17
1,744
1994
2
261
20
1,950
1995
3
332
22
2,176
1996
3
332
27
2,223
1997
6
71,335.2
583
114,944
Ulsan·Mipo
National Industry Complex
1
46,222
421
102,437
Onsan National Industrial
Complex
1
24,518
135
10,184
Songbuk Agriculture and
Industrial Complex
1
138.5
9
1,189
Tuso Agriculture and
Industrial Complex
1
122.6
14
850
Tudong Agriculture and
Industrial Complex
1
69.7
4
284
Dalchon Agriculture and
Industrial Complex
1
264.4
Incompleted
2.3 The Environmental States of the UMC
Main pollutants of national complexes are air and poison pollution because major
factories in these areas are petroleum chemical or heavy industries. More specifically,
<
Table
4>.environmental
The Circumstance
of Air
Pollution
UMC
two
major
problems
in the
UMC areinair
quality and water pollution.
Criteria
Unit
Category
SO2
TSP
O3
NO2
CO
Acid
Rain
Average Levels of Air Pollution by Year
PPM/Y
μ g/m3/Y
PPM/8h
PPM/Y
PPM/8h
0.03
150
0.06
0.05
9
1991
0.038
96
0.013
0.022
1.7
P.H
5.6
5.5
1992
0.031
95
0.012
0.027
1.3
1993
0.032
97
0.014
0.028
1.4
1994
0.031
95
0.013
0.026
1.2
1995
0.028
98
0.015
0.023
1.3
1996
0.022
106
0.015
0.023
1.0
1997
0.018
75
0.015
0.023
0.9
1998.4
0.016
69
0.017
0.022
0.8
5.7
5.3
5.4
5.4
5.6
5.7
5.9
Source:Department
Ulsan Commercial
Chamber (1998),
The in
Economic
of Ulsan
Metropolitan
City in the Circumstances
Source:
of Environmental
Protection
the UMCStatus
(1998.5),
Circumstances
of Environmental
Preservationofin the
Ulsan Commercial and Industrial Sites (p.2).
UMC.
1). Each number is extracted from the Korean Census Survey on the Mining and Manufacturing Industry
2). 1 US dollars ($) = 900 Korean Won
Water quality can be noted in Table 5. Water pollution exceeds the environmental
criteria in most areas except coastal water. In other words, the UMC is experiencing
serious water pollution. However, water quality has improved since the middle of the
1990s due to the same reasons which account for the improvement of air quality. Other
environmental problems such as noise, soil, and poison also became better as the result
of the effort of the local government and the public (UMC, 1997). In a broad sense, the
environmental quality of the UMC has been improved but that of specific industrial
Air Pollution (SO2) by the Metropolitan City
Seoul
Pusan
Taegu
Inchon
Kyongju
Taejun
Ulsan
Standard 1993
0.03 0.023
0.03 0.028
0.03 0.035
0.03 0.021
0.03 0.014
0.03 0.020
0.03 0.032
1994
0.019
0.023
0.038
0.022
0.013
0.021
0.030
1995
0.017
0.023
0.031
0.023
0.010
0.017
0.028
1996
0.013
0.022
0.023
0.012
0.008
0.015
0.022
1997
0.011
0.018
0.016
0.013
0.009
0.011
0.019
Generation of Waste Water and Household Waste Water per Day
Unit
1993
Household
1
Thousand㎥/ 13972
Waste Water
Day
Per Capita
ℓ /Person, Day
314
Industrial Waste 1
Thousand㎥/
6412
Water
Day
Discharge
1
Thousand㎥/
2093
Amount
Day
Livestock Waste 1
Thousand㎥/ 170138
Water
Day
BOD Discharge 1
Thousand㎥/
470
Day
1994
15976
1995
1996
1997
7259
8741
8926
4874
2316
2375
2511
2618
175669
168370
197017
199917
403
455
541
547
Table 5. The Circumstances of Water Pollution in the UMC
Criteria
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997 1998.4
BOD 1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.5
1.5
1.8
1.3
2.0
Lower
BOD 3
11.7
6.4
6.9
9.7
9.8
11.3
10.7
7.4
BOD 3
6.6
3.5
3.3
4.2
3.8
2.8
3.5
2.5
COD 4
2.0
1.7
1.3
1.9
1.9
1.3
1.3
-
Coastal
Water
1992
Upper
Taewha River
1991
HeiYa
River
Category
Location
Average Levels of Water Quality by Year(ppm)
The Method of Waste Treatment in the 7 Large Cities (household + Industrial
waste)
Category
Total
Landfill
Incineration
Reuse
Total
Seoul
Busan
Taegu
Inchon
Kyongju
Taejun
Ulsan
47,894.8
12,661.9
4,146.0
2,744.9
2,056.5
1,546.5
1,488.1
1,237.8
30,578.5
7,839.8
2,142.0
2,047.9
1,662.8
1,143.6
1,083.8
854.6
3,409.0
582.2
511.0
173.7
35.9
7.2
13.3
29.1
13,907.3
4,239.9
1,493.0
523.3
357.8
395.7
391.0
354.1
Environment Related Organization
. Investment on the Environment Issues and Financial Sources
Investment sections
IV. Lessons from the Korean and Ulsan Experiences.
Everything in Korea has been changed dramatically except human species
during the last 40 years. In a broad sense, Korea has become a better society.
However, this rapid growth created a serious negative result. In other words,
'environmentally,' "Samcheunri Gumsu Gang San" is altered to a serious
polluted country. More specifically, the environmental problem of Ulsan is
very serious like the above descriptions even if she has played the role of
engine to promote the Korean economic growth. The reasons can be
summarized as follows:
1) In order to promote economic growth, the Korean government adopted the
growth strategy of heavy-chemical industry that is a pollution-related
manufacture. Ulsan is a symbolic city of economic growth and
environmental problems. Ulsan's economic growth indicated the
deterioration of urban environments. It was a trade-off relation. Therefore,
the government should adopt the environment friendly industry to stop the
trade-off relation of economic growth and environmental problems. It is a
sustainable development strategy.
2) The second is that the central government did not consider the
environmental impacts of heavy-chemical industrial complexes. However, if
the environmental problems occur once, it is very difficult to cure them by
their inherent nature. Actually, even though the central government has
tried to cure the environmental problems since 1984, it became worse so far.
Fortunately, the central government had continuously reforested in
mountain areas since 1960s and succeeded in building a green national land
except urban areas.
3) The third is the management of environmental problems. In terms of
political structure, the local autonomy was not established until 1995 and
environmental policies were controlled by the central government. It
resulted in the inefficient correspondence on the local environmental
problems. Until now, national industrial complexes are regulated by the
central government and local complexes are controlled by the local one but
both complexes are located within the UMC. Two different organizations
involved in the management of Ulsan environmental problems and it
caused several problems on the management of several industrial
complexes.
4) The non-profit organization and citizens must participate in the
improvement of environmental problems because it is impossible to do it
without their helps. Many environmental organizations and citizens and
even some factories recently involved in the improvement of environments
in the central and local level. The public concerns on the environmental
issues increased explosively because the environmental problems such as
fresh water, air quality, bad smell and so on are directly related with the
quality of their lives.
In summary, in the beginning stage of economic development, Korea made
a mistake that did not consider negative impacts of rapid economic growth
which are environmental problems. As a result, she has paid a lot of costs
to cure these problems and still is undergoing. Very recently, the central
and local government, citizens' organizations and even plants begin to take
into consideration on the environmental issues. As a result of these efforts,
the direction of environmental problems changed from the deteriorating
trend to the improving one (Department of Environment Protection of
UMC, 1998).
VII. Concluding Remarks and Future Studies
1. building of sustainable urban growth management model
(1). Economic growth policy
(2). Urban amenity
(3). Industry ecology and sustainable consumption
(4). Role of organizations (government, social organizations, and citizens)
(5). International comparisons of the environmental and economic growth policy
(6). Governance on the environmental issues
2. .Applying the Modified Model to Case Study Cities
.3. Finding Policy Implications
IV. Research Members
Changsuk Kim (Seoul
cskim@uoscc.uos.ac.kr)
City
Univ.
Ph.D:
Projector
Leader:
Hoiseung Jeong (Korea Environment Institute, Ph.D:hsjeong@keins.kei.re.kr)
Deokho Cho (Univ. of Kyongju, Ph.D: chodh@biho.targu.ac.kr)
Dongkeun Lee (Sangmyung Univ. Ph.D: Project Manager)
(dklee@smuc.sangmyung.ac.kr)
8 Research assistants(2 assistants per professor)
V. Time Schedule of Study and Members' Roles
Time
Category
1.Research
Plan
2.Gathering
Base
Data,
Review
of
Lite rature
3.Field
Survey:
Ulsan
4.Midterm
Report
5.Review of
Midterm
Report
Case Study
(Inchon)
6. Building
of
Sustainable
Urban
Growth
Model
7.Final
Report
97.6
97.9
97.11
98.2
98.5
98.8
98.11
Four
Membe rs
(Kim)
Jeong
and Cho
Cho
Lee
and
Four
Membe rs
(Kim)
Lee
and
Cho
Lee
and
Jeong
Four
Membe rs
Four
Membe rs