The History of
Political Thought
The Hindu Vision
The ancient Hindus believed that one must
first master himself before he qualified to
exercise power over others
Illusion and ignorance are the source of
fear
Liberation from fear brings perception that
all beings are interconnected.
The Hindus distrusted politics and the state
Hindu Education
Artha – the value of wealth and property
Kama – sensual, especially sexual pleasure
Dharma – religious duties which lead one
toward righteousness
Moksha – spiritual liberation, freedom from
illusion, fear, and ignorance and the
discovery of the unity of all beings
The Hindu Stages of Life
Brahmacharya – the student stage (0-25)
Composed of studying all knowledge and
the texts of Hinduism
Grihastha – the householder stage (25-55)
providing for family and raising children
Vanaprastha – literally “forest hermit,” this
person sought truth is solitude. He left all
family responsibility behind to seek truth.
The Hindu Stages of Life
Sannyasa – meaning “saintliness.” This
depends on the result of vanaprastha.
The person returns to society once being
enlightened with the unity of all things.
The sannyasin is strictly noviolent because
the connection of all things leads to the
truth that in injuring another, we injure our
self.
The Hindu Castes
The Hindus believed in a tripartite soul –
sattva (wisdom or goodness), rajas
(courage or energy) and tamas (desire or
appetite).
The social organization reflects the
predominance of these qualities among
the people.
The Castes were originally merit, not
heredity based.
The Hindu Castes
Brahmans – the philosopher/priest class
dominate because of their wisdom and
goodness
Kshatriyas – the political/military class
excel in courage and energy
Vaishyas – the commercial and
agricultural class are characterized by
desire and appetite.
Egypt
The Pharaoh was considered to be both god
and man.
He thus ruled absolutely – his word was law.
The power of governance was held by a
single person. Rule was not by the consent
of the governed.
Note that Egyptians owned their own land
until the time of Joseph.
Ancient Israel
Israel started out without any national
political system.
They had a legal system and local
government (the elders of each city)
They were warned by Samuel against
having a king.
The Lord’s anointed king only became
king when so chosen by the people.
The Athenian Democracy
Every adult male citizen shared in direct rule
The Athenian assembly met once a month
There were no literacy or property
qualifications
Any citizen could address the assembly and
propose legislation
Every citizen could serve in some public
office
The Athenian Democracy
Women and slaves were denied any
representation in the government
Direct rule was exercised by 40,000 men
out of a population of 350,000
Politics were dominated by amateurs
The Athenian Democracy
The rights of an Athenian citizen included
– freedom of speech
– freedom of expression
– the right of a trial by jury
– the right to bear arms
– the right to participate in the Assembly
– the right to hold government office
An Athenian didn’t have freedom of
religion – to be Athenian meant to worship
the Greek gods.
The Athenian decline
Pericles led Athens into war against
Sparta – The Peloponnesian War.
Part of the war centered on Corcyra, an
island whose people were split in
allegiance between Athens and Sparta.
The people of this island committed
horrendous atrocities against each other
The Athenian decline
Thucydides, a Greek historian, wrote that
“People went to every extreme and
beyond it.”
Fathers killed sons. Whole families were
executed. People were killed in the
religious temples.
Reflecting on the ruin this brought to the
Athenian civilization, Thucydides wrote
“War is a violent teacher.”
The Athenian decline
In the Athenian society, different factions
twisted the meanings of words which led to
the degeneration of civilization.
Character deteriorated as people were carried
away by their passions and forgot reason.
Thucydides concludes that “love of power,
operating through greed and personal
ambition, was the cause of all these evils.”
He then asked “Can power be wielded
wisely?”
Socrates and Truth
Socrates asks “What course of life is best?”
In answer, he recommends the philosophical
life – the pilgrimage for truth.
Wisdom consists of knowing that one does
not know. One must recognize his own
ignorance and be humble to search for truth.
Truth must be pursued, it cannot be infallibly
possessed (religions claim to possess truth)
Plato vs. Hindus
Plato see the state as a moral force – an
agent of virtue and a means of education.
The Hindus see the state as an agent of
discipline.
Plato believes that the wise can be trusted
to wield power wisely.
The Hindus believe that political power will
corrupt the wise.
What is justice?
The Republic of Plato
Polemarchus argues that justice is giving
each man his due.
Justice is “an eye for an eye”
Socrates responds that it can never be
just, though it may be expedient, to harm
another person
The Republic of Plato
Thrasymachus claims that justice is “might
makes right.” The stronger party defines
“just” as whatever is its best interest.
Socrates responds that just as a doctor
seeks to benefit not himself, but his
patients, a ruler must seek to benefit his
subjects. Like the doctor, the ruler must
posses the scientific knowledge proper to
his craft.
The Republic of Plato
Glaucon argues that justice arises not
from moral truth, but from expedience.
Justice originates in the desire of the weak
to have security against the strong. He
claims that all people will pursue their own
self-interests regardless of law or justice if
they have the opportunity.
He cites the myth of Gyges to support this
social contract view of justice.
The Republic of Plato
Socrates responds that the state, like an
individual, is composed of reason, spirit
and desire. Justice is the right balance of
these three elements with reason over all.
The Republic of Plato
Plato argues that Athens is in need of
drastic reform and proposes 3 waves of
change
– Qualified women must be allowed to hold
political power
– The nuclear family and private property must
be abolished to raise up common interest
– Philosophers should rule.
The Republic of Plato
Plato points out 3 failures of democracy
– it failed to distinguish between freedom and
license
– it catered to the satisfaction of desires while
neglecting to provide order and foster civic
duty
– it was governed by mere opinion instead of by
genuine knowledge
He then offers the parable of the ship of
state
Plato’s Forms
Plato believed that everything on earth has
eternal, perfect counterparts that exist
independent of human reality.
Something's goodness is dependent on
how similar it is to the perfect form.
Plato proposes a perfect city to which we
should aspire. This city is very similar to
Augustine’s City of God.
Raphael’s painting, “The City of Athens”
Aristotle vs. Plato
Aristotle was from Macedonia and wasn’t
affected by Athens defeat in the
Peloponnesian War as Plato was.
Aristotle saw his teacher live a long
productive life where Plato saw his teacher
condemned and executed.
Aristotle came from the middle class
where Plato was an aristocrat.
Aristotle was schooled in biology and
natural sciences where Plato was
schooled math.
Aristotle’s Response
Aristotle proposed the “golden mean.”
The mean is the way of moderation. Most
things have two extremes, we need the
middle way.
On one side is cowardice, on the other
side is foolhardiness. The golden mean is
courage.
Not everything has a mean; there is no
right way to commit adultery.
Aristotle’s Response
to the First Wave
Aristotle argues against women as rulers
He says that nature shows us that there
need to be both the ruler and the ruled.
The ruling people have reason and foresight.
The ruled people should obey the rulers
This is evident in nature and in societal
institutions such as family and polis.
Aristotle’s Response
to the First Wave
The human soul has two elements, one
that rules (reason) and one that is ruled
(passion).
Women must not be allowed to rule since
they lack rational capacity. In men, the
rational always rules but, for women, it is
present but ineffective.
Slaves are slaves because they lack the
capacity to reason.
Aristotle’s Response
to the Second Wave
Aristotle says that the institutions of family
and property are rooted in nature.
Observation shows that we take care of
what is our own, and neglect that which is
not our own. Possession brings duty and
obligation.
The family is natural and promotes civic
virtue and mutual care among loved ones.
Aristotle’s Response
to the Second Wave
Private property is necessary because
people neglect common property but care
for private property
Property should be possessed in
moderation and put to public use when
possible
Charity is only possible under private
property
Aristotle’s Response
to the Third Wave
Aristotle believes that it is dangerous to
concentrate power in an elite.
Concentrated power will breed discontent
The middle class embodies moderation
since they hold property and make livings.
They will reject radical change.
Qualified rulers are then male property
owners who are literate.
Alexander the Great
Was a student of Aristotle
Believed that
– all men are equal
– men should be judged by virtue rather than
race or religion
– the government should be tolerant,
multicultural and diverse
– peace and harmony would be increased by
free trade and tolerant social policies
– by intermarriage men would accept each
other as brothers
The Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was born after
Rome’s defeat by Carthage in 216 BC
(70,000 Romans died in one battle).
The last king had been driven out of Rome
in 509 BC and Romans hated the idea of
lex. This is why the Caesar was not king.
The Roman republic was a model of a
balanced constitution.
The Roman Republic
The Romans believed there were three
essentials for good government:
– Monarchy – the need for strong leadership
– Aristocracy – the need for guidance by a
small group of wise and experienced citizens
– Democracy – the need for a broad base of
popular support
The Roman Republic
The branches of Roman government
were:
– Consuls, the executives. Two were elected
every year and were the generals of the
armies. Each had veto power over the other.
The senate had to approve any spending.
– Senate, the aristocracy was composed of 300
former magistrates who served for life.
Senate controlled spending and foreign policy.
The Senate could not pass laws.
The Roman Republic
– Magistrates, the judges, were elected directly
by the people. The judges sought to discover
and apply law.
– Assembly of all Roman citizens. This was the
sovereign power of Rome. It was composed
of all males who served in the military and it
passed laws and decided all matters of war
and peace. The assembly elected the
magistrates.
The Roman Republic
– Tribunes were the protectors of the people.
Every year 10 tribunes were elected. A single
tribune had veto power over the Assembly, the
Senate and the Consuls.
The Romans held civic virtue high and
their education system trained people to
be virtuous and civic minded.
The Roman army was a citizen army – all
men had to serve for 16 years.
The Roman Republic
The rights of a Roman citizen included:
– The right to vote and participate in politics
– Equality under the law
– Freedom from arbitrary arrest
– The right to trial by jury
– Freedom of speech
– Economic freedom
You did not get freedom of religion; to be a
Roman citizen meant to worship Rome’s
gods.
Machiavelli
Machiavelli and Plato share similarities.
Both
– lived in times of political crisis and turned to
power based solutions
– believed in strong central leadership
Machiavelli sees the state as an
instrument of force rather than of virtue
He views human nature more like
Thucydides than Plato or Aristotle.
Machiavelli’s The Prince
He urges the Prince to act pragmatically
and to practice vice whenever it is useful
to do so. He also says that virtue or ethics
need not apply in politics.
He tells the Prince that it is better to be
feared than to be loved. The Prince must
use violence and strength decisively.
Machiavelli’s The Prince
Keeping one’s word is praiseworthy but
gain is more likely by using illusion and
deception.
The Prince should study the fox and the
lion – cunning and strength. Often trickery
is preferable to brute force.
Machiavelli taught that the end always
justified the means. The Princes methods
are always worthy
The Divine Right of Kings
The king is chosen and ordained by God.
The king rules on earth in Gods place thus
resistance to the king is blasphemy.
This is an old concept, from Egypt and
Mesopotamia, known by Homer, and
written into Roman law (for the Emperors)
People used Paul’s statement in Ro 13 to
back this idea.
We are skipping the English
tradition and that of the
Founding of America in this set
of slides. We will cover it later
in this course.
Anarchy
Emma Goldman was an anarchist. She
stood for personal freedom and predicted
the downfall of Soviet communism.
Anarchists reject the entire system of
government as authoritarian and
hierarchical. They want to overturn the
class structure.
Their main principle is resistance to
authority because it deprives us of
freedom of expression and belief.
Anarchy
The 3 main points of anarchy are as follow:
Human nature is seen as good
– it is flexible and dynamic and changes
– it is not innately aggressive but is cooperative
such that a child can be raised so that authority
is unnecessary
– People want to help each other and live in
social harmony
Anarchy
Freedom is the supreme value
– freedom and equality are tied together
– equality means equality of opportunity and
economic equality
– Emma spent time in jail for teaching women
about birth control.
Anarchy
The relationship of the means to the end
must be correct
– Emma criticized communism for believing that
the end justifies the means
– She asserted that any attempt to change the
human condition must make its “first ethical
precept the identity of means used and aims
sought.”
Fascism
Fascism derives from Machiavelli’s ideas
Fascism is anti-intellectual
It holds that all truth is a matter of opinion
and what counts is action
The fascist worships power and believes
that might makes right
Fascism
Fascists view the government and the
country as the same thing
They want a strong, charismatic leader
They are often intolerant of other religions,
ethnicities or other factors
Fascists will do whatever seems necessary
– be it allow freedom or remove it.