Descriptive Research
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Purpose
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Determines and describes the way things are
Compares how sub-groups view issues and topics
Importance
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Frequently used in research studies
Used to influence opinion
Useful for investigating a variety of educational
problems
Differences from Qualitative
Research
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Descriptive Research
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Uses observations
and interviews
Studies the topic
from the researcher’s
perspective

Qualitative Research

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Uses observations
and interviews
Studies the topic
from the participant’s
perspective
Method
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Six steps in conducting descriptive
research
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Identify problem
Review literature
Select participants and instruments
Collect valid and reliable data
Analyze data
Report conclusions
Common Errors
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Lack of participant response
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Low response rates are common
Difficulties interpreting the findings without
the data representing non-respondents’
views
Unclear/ambiguous items

Researcher needs to develop recording
forms that collect the data objectively and
reliably
Classifications of Descriptive
Research
•
Classified by how data are collected
•
Self-report
•
•
Individuals respond to statements or questions
about themselves
Observation
•
Data is collected by the researcher watching
participants
Survey Data Collection Methods

Surveys represent the most common
type of self-report measures
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Questionnaires
Interviews
Advantages of conducting surveys
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Less time is required
Less expenses are incurred
Larger samples can be used
Survey Data Collection Methods
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Five (5) types of surveys
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School surveys
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Information collected by a school
Information collected about a school
Sample surveys

Use of samples representing relevant
subgroups of interest
Survey Data Collection Methods
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Developmental surveys

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Examining variables that differentiate children
at different developmental stages
Cross-sectional surveys

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Collecting data from several samples at one
point in time
Surveying samples of elementary, middle, and
secondary teachers at the same time
Survey Data Collection Methods

Longitudinal surveys

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Collecting data at two or more times to
measure change
Four types
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Trend – samples from succeeding groups are studied
over time
Cohort – separate samples from a single group are
studied over time
Panel – a single sample from a group is studied over
time
Follow-up – a sample is studied after the formal
study is complete
Conducting Survey Research

State the problem

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The topic must be of sufficient significance
to motivate a respondent and justify the
research effort
Select the participants

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Must be able to provide the desired
information
Must be willing to participate
Conducting Survey Research

Constructing the questionnaire
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Appearance
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Visually attractive – use of white space
Brief
Carefully planned content and item formats

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Clearly identify sub-topics
Use structured items if possible
Use responses that can be checked or circled
rather than written
Conducting Survey Research

Methods to collect data
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Mailed surveys
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Advantages – efficient, inexpensive, easily
standardized, easy to score, anonymous or
confidential
Disadvantages – low response rate, inability to probe
E-mailed surveys
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Advantages – quick, efficient, inexpensive, easily
standardized, easy to score
Disadvantages – can only assure confidentiality,
respondents might not have access to e-mail
Conducting Survey Research

Telephone surveys
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Personal administration
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Advantages – high response rates, efficient
Disadvantages – requires lists of telephone numbers,
requires training
Advantages – efficient if respondents are in close proximity
to the administrator, allows for probes
Disadvantages – time consuming, expensive, requires
training
Personal interview

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Advantages – rich complete responses
Disadvantages – little standardization, takes time to
administer, expensive
Conducting Survey Research

Types of items

Two approaches to writing an item

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Structured items – closed-ended, selection
Unstructured – open-ended, supply
 Two disadvantages are that respondents will not take
the time to respond and the responses are difficult to
score objectively
Specific types
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Scales
 Likert
 Semantic differential
Rankings
Checklists
Free responses
Conducting Survey Research
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Qualities of good items
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Address single concept
Avoid jargon
Include point of reference
Avoid leading questions
Avoid sensitive questions
Do not assume facts not necessarily true
Pretested
Provide information on how to respond
Questionnaire design
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Do not crowd items
Number pages and items
Do not put important questions at the end
Conducting Survey Research

Constructing a cover letter
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Explains what is being asked and why
Content
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A brief description of the study
Contact information
Organizational endorsements and support
Deadline for responding
Stamped self-addressed return envelope
Conducting Survey Research
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Cover Letter Characteristics
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Is brief, neat, and personalized
Gives reason to respond
Gives means to respond
Promises anonymity or confidentiality
Anonymity and confidentiality

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Anonymity means no one can trace the respondent to his
or her responses
Confidentiality means the researcher knows who
responded but promises not to divulge that information

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Used to track respondents and non-respondents
Usually ensured by coding names when the data is entered
Conducting Survey Research
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Pretest the questionnaire
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Reviews by three (3) or four (4) individuals
Provides information about deficiencies and
suggestions for improvement
Follow-up activities
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Reminder postcard
Second survey with a cover letter politely
requesting a response
Telephoning a small sample of non-respondents
Conducting Survey Research

Two types of non-responses
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Respondents not returning the survey
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First mailings usually result in 30% - 50% response
rate
Follow-up postcards usually add about 20%
Sending a second survey with a polite cover letter
requesting participation usually adds about 10%
Conducting Survey Research
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Respondents not returning the survey (cont.)
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Concerns with generalizing from the results of the
respondents given the lack of information from the
non-respondents
 Use of telephone interviews to collect responses
from a few non-respondents
 Comparing these responses to those of the
respondents
 Comparing respondents and non-respondents on
demographic variables to ascertain any
systematic differences
Conducting Survey Research
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Two types of non-responses (cont.)
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Respondents not completing items
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Be certain this is taken into account when
summarizing scores
Simply adding scores will not reflect the true score of
a participant if he or she has left some items blank
Averaging those items to which a participant has
responded takes into account his or her blank
responses
Conducting Survey Research
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Tabulating responses
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Closed-ended items
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Scantrons
Electronic spreadsheets (e.g., Excel)
Statistical software (e.g., SPSS-Windows)
Open-ended items
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Code answers according to perceived patterns
Conducting Survey Research
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Analyzing results
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Total sample size and return rate
Responses to each item
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Subscale scores
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Average score and percentage of the sample
responding
Average score of items on the subscale
Total score
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Average score of all items
Conducting Interviews

An interview is the oral, in-person
administration of a questionnaire to
each member of a sample.
Interview Studies
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Advantages
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More in-depth
Flexible
Gives opportunity to
establish rapport
Allows immediate
follow-up
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Disadvantages
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May be biased by
interviewer
Time-consuming and
expensive
Requires skill
Conducting Interview Research
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Define the problem
Identify potential interviewees
Construct an interview guide
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A written protocol that indicates what
questions are to be asked, in what order,
and how much prompting and probing is
permitted
Conducting Interview Research
Interview Guide (continued)
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Assures that all interviews will be
conducted in the same manner
Generally uses semi-structured and
unstructured items
Pretest the interview
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Identifies deficiencies and suggests
improvements
Conducting Interview Research
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Administer the interview
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Conducting an interview effectively requires
training, effective communication skills, and
good interpersonal skills
Guidelines
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Be as brief as possible
Explain terms that the interviewee might not
understand
Do not use leading questions
Do more listening and less talking
Conducting Interview Research
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Record the responses
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Manually recording
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Cumbersome and slow
Likely to miss important information
Mechanical recording
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Cassette tapes and videos
Captures most, if not all, of the information
Permits reviewing of the information
Causes potential discomfort on the interviewee’s part
Can malfunction
Obj. 5.7