●
Learning Modes
● Theories
● Types
of Learning
of Memory
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels for use by
Walden U. students, and teachers of
Advanced General Psychology
Vessels’ Learning Modes
Kevin Ryan’s Learning Modes
Interpersonal and Environmental
Support (Relationships)
ETHOS
Unstructured Peer-Group
Interaction and Play
Developmentally Appropriate
Discipline & Reinforcement
EXPECTATIONS
Observation & Modeling
EXAMPLE
Direct Instruction
EXPLANATION
Experiential Learning in Classroom
and School Communities
EXPERIENCE
Service Learning & Experiences
in the Larger Community
EXPERIENCE
This alignment was created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000 ©. Professor Kevin Ryan may or may not agree that his five E’s correspond to Dr.
Vessels’ seven modes exactly as shown above. Professor Ryan’s work precedes Dr. Vessels work by many years, and it is presented here as
validation of Dr. Vessels’ similarly eclectic approach.
Vessels’ Learning Modes
Validating Theorists
Interpersonal and Environmental
Support
Rogers, Damon, Baumrind, Knowles,
Benson, Piaget, Lave, Kagan, Havighurst,
DeVries, Erikson, Vygotsky, Bruner
Unstructured Peer-Group
Interaction and Play
Piaget, Vygotsky, Rogers,
DeVries, Lave, Turiel, Bruner
Developmentally Appropriate
Discipline & Reinforcement
Skinner, Knowles, Damon, Tolman, Gagne,
Thorndike, Aristotle, Havighurst, Baumrind,
Hull, Aristotle, Hoffman
Observation & Modeling
Bandura, Gagne, Vygotsky, Mischel,
Rotter, Kohlberg
Didactics or Direct Instruction
J. Anderson, Shweder, Norman, Ausubel,
Damon, Kohler, G. Miller, Durkheim, Gardner,
Vygotsky, Bloom, Sternberg , Rumelhardt,
McClelland, Lynn, Hoffman
Active Participation Within
Classroom and School Communities
Piaget, Dewey, Bruner, Turiel, Nucci,
Lave, Damon, Erikson, Socrates, Vygotsky,
Knowles, Kohlberg, DeVries, Rogers,
Gagne, Schaps, Bruner
Service Learning & Learning in the
Larger Community
Lave, Rogers, Durkheim, Bandura,
Benson, Shweder
This alignment was created by Dr. Gordon Vessels. The theorists shown above and/or experts who know their work well may not agree that the work of these
individuals supports the learning modes with which they are aligned and/or that their work is limited to a particular learning mode.
Vessels’ Learning Modes
Relevant Concepts/Methods
Interpersonal and
Environmental Support
Experiential Learning, Respectful Engagement,
Authoritative Parenting, Situated Learning, Love
That Fosters Identification, Constructivism,
Differentiated Instruction, Unconditional Regard
Unstructured Peer-Group
Interaction and Play
Experiential Learning, Spontaneous Game Play,
Situated Learning, Constructivism
Developmentally Appropriate
Discipline & Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning, Sign Learning,
Connectionism, Conditions of Learning, Ethics of
Fear and Shame, Heteronomy, Authoritarian
Conscience, Authoritative Parenting/Teaching,
Feedback, Practice, Habit Formation, Induction
Observation & Modeling
Social Learning, Conditions of Learning, Zone of
Proximal Development, Scaffolding, Vicarious
Reinforcement, Just Community
Didactics or Direct Instruction
Active Participation Within
Classroom and School
Communities
Service Learning & Learning
in the Larger Community
Subsumption, Information Processing,
Socialization, Multiple Intelligences, Social
Development, Heteronomy, Bloom’s Taxonomy,
Componential Subtheory, Learning Styles,
Differentiated Instruction, Assimilation
Progressive Education, Democratic Education,
Constructivism, Situated Learning, Respectful
Engagement, Social Learning, Zone of Proximal
Development, Experiential Learning, Conditions of
Learning, Collaborative Learning, Just Community
Situated Learning, Experiential Learning,
Socialization, Social Learning, Communitarianism,
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2003 ©
ENJOY THE AFTER IMAGES by Gordon Vessels ©
Stimulus and response (behavior) in classical and
operant conditioning: Thorndike, Hull, Watson, Skinner
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Result: Horn
Eye Blink
Key Relationship
Stimulus
Horn
Stimulus
Behavior
Air Puff
Eye Blink
CS
UCS
UCR
OPERANT CONDITIONING
CR
Stimulus
Horn
Behavior
Result: Whistle
The whistle is an antecedent discriminative
stimulus. Behavior occurring in its
presence will continue if reinforced.
Stimulus
Clap
CS
Eye Blink
Sit Up
Key Relationship
Behavior
Reinforcer
Sit Up
Food
A
B
C
Antecedents
Behavior
Consequences
TIME
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Presented
Removed
After a Behavior, a Reinforcer is:
Types of
Reinforcement and
Punishment
Type of Operant Event
Pleasant
Positive
Reinforcement
positive
reinforcer
received
positive
reinforcer
removed
Negative
Punishment
Unpleasant
negative
reinforcer
received
Punishment
Negative
Reinforcement
negative
reinforcer
removed
Positive Reinforcers: (Primary) (Secondary) food & water; money & praise
Negative Reinforcers: (Primary) (Secondary) shock & headache; rejection & criticism
BEHAVIOR CHANGE
METHODS FOR BEHAVIOR CHANGE
Mechanism
Definition
Examples
Positive
Reinforcement
Encouraging a behavior by
giving a desired reward or
reinforcer thereafter
Giving a child candy when he
brings in a homework assignment;
Saying “good girl” to a baby who
swallows a spoonful of food.
Negative
Reinforcement
Encouraging a behavior by
removing an aversive
stimulus thereafter
Ceasing to scold a child when he
hangs up his clothes; Giving in to a
roommate or spouse in order to
bring an argument to an end
Punishment
Giving an aversive stimulus
in response to an undesired
behavior to suppress it
Slapping a child for swearing at his
parent; making a child do chores
after getting into a fight with a
classmate
Negative
Punishment
Removing a desired reward
or activity in response to
undesirable behavior
Sending a child to her room
without toys because she refused
to share her toys; refusing to
speak to a spouse who was rude.
Extinction
Gradually eliminating a
behavior by removing the
reinforcers that follow it
Ignoring a child when he has a
temper tantrum; drastically cutting
the possible winnings in a state
lottery
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Social
Learning;
Situated
Learning
Sociocultural
Information Processing
Expectancy
Constructivism;
Discovery
Learning
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT; COMMUNITY; INQUIRY
CENTERS; SCAFFOLDING; COOPERATION; COLLABORATION;
OBSERVATION; VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT; SCHEMAS;
MENTAL MAPS; RESPECTFUL ENGAGEMENT; NETWORKS
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
Social Interaction a Key
Observation a Key
Assumptions
Behavioral Outcomes
Role of Cognition
Bandura
Bandura: Social-Learning (social-cognitive)
Major
Theories
Rotter: Expectancy
Lave:
Situated Learning
Bruner
Apprenticeships
Authentic Activities
Problem Solving
Piaget
Social-Cognitive
Constructivism
Rotter
Anchored Instruction
Bruner: Discovery
SOCIAL
LEARNING
THEORIES
Vygotsky: Sociocultural Development
Cooperative Learning
Zone of Proximal Development
Collaborative Learning
Instruction
Communities of Learning
Piaget
Checklists
Lave
Modeled after a chart created by Y.W. Kreher that can be found at
http://web.syr.edu/~ywkreher/IDE%20621%20KB/SOCIAL_LEARNING/
Vygotsky
ywkreher@syr.edu
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Piaget’s theory of learning is based
on the proposition that the child [or
person] builds cognitive structures,
that is, mental maps, concept
networks, or schemas that are used
to understand and respond to new
learning experiences. His several
stages of development explain how
these structures and their use in
thinking change qualitatively with
maturation. If the child’s learning
experience fits existing schemas or
cognitive structures of knowledge, it
is assimilated; if the learning
experience is relatively unfamiliar,
different, or novel in some way, the
child [person] loses equilibrium and
must rebuild one or more schemas
or networks of cognitive structures to
accommodate the new information.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Discovery Learning
Curious
Accepts learner autonomy
Focus on learning rather than teaching
Learner has will
Learner has purpose
Encourages learner inquiry
Desirable traits
Initiative
Persistence
Overall: Organize own work
Motivation is the
key to learning
Encourages learner curiosity
Encourages learner initiative
Experience plays
a critical role in
learning
Learner has existing beliefs
Learner has existing attitudes
Learner has existing knowledge
Select and transform information
Construct hypotheses
Make choices
Responsible
for his own
learning
Learning is an
active process
Learn new information
Double Lesson
Focus on
the Learner
Learn new way to learn
The Role of
the Learner
Software as a tool to reach learning goals
Use
Technology
Humans have a
cognitive
predisposition to . . .
Internet access and share information
Stimulate modeling, etc. to support the research
Plan
Facilitator
Organize
Counseling
Learning is
contextualized
Related to the rest of their life
Related to their prejudices
Related to their fears
Guide
Show “Direction”
Open-Minded
Cooperative learning is supported
Learning involves language
Learning is a
social activity
Learning involves being in real-world situations
Between students
Encourages dialogue
Between student
and teacher
Reflection
Learning
Is . . .
The Role
of the
Teacher
Learning Along the Way
Cognitive
Stimulation
Make Suggestions
Give Recommendations
Challenge Creativity
Encourage Independent Thinking
Learning
takes time
Maturation
Assess the
Individual
Learner
Possibilities, current levels, etc.
Strengths: cognitive, artistic, etc.
Developmental Needs: social, moral, etc.
Feelings, personality, learning style, etc.
Deep understanding
Focus on . . .
Set Limits
Authentic Performance
This is a methodology
related to Piaget’s work, but
it may not reflect his thinking
about adult-child relations.
Constructivism
This chart is an elaborated version of one created by Sinia and retrived from
http://www.uib.no/People/sinia/CSCL/HMM_Constructivism.htm Contact Sinia at
sinia@rasmus.uib.no or the Universitetet I Bergen in Norway.
Jerome Bruner
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Jerome Bruner’s Constructivism and Discovery Learning
Learning is an active
process wherein the
learner constructs
new concepts built
on prior learning.
The learner selects and transforms
information, constructs hypotheses,
and makes decisions while relying
on cognitive structures or schemas.
The teacher
encourages students
to discover. They
engage in an active
dialogue.
2. Students’
predisposition
toward learning
4. The nature and
pacing of rewards
and punishments
Explorations in Learning & Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database; Copyright 1994-2004 Greg Kearsley (gkearsley@sprynet.com)
http://home.sprynet.com/~gkearsley Permission is granted to use these materials for any educational, scholarly, or non-commercial purpose.
Bandura’s Social Learning
Theory or Observational
Learning Theory
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Observer’s behavior
changes after viewing the
behavior of a model in a
particular environment —
direct interaction with the
model is not necessary
IDENTIFICATION/
ADMIRATION:
Observer’s imitation of
the model is more likely if
the model possesses
characteristics the
observer finds attractive
or like themselves.
VICARIOUS
REINFORCEMENT:
Observer’s behavior is
affected by the positive
and/or negative
consequences the model
experiences as a result of
his or her behavior.
Social learning theory
explains human behavior in
terms of continuous
reciprocal interaction
between cognitive,
behavioral, and
environmental influences.
ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social/Observational Learning Processes
Attention
Retention
Characteristic of:
Model
Production
Organize
Verbal
Imagery
Activity
Motivation
Consequences
Initiate
SelfReward
Monitor
Subject
Incentives
Refine
Potential Forms of Reinforcement
Extrinsic
Intrinsic
Vicarious
Self Reinforcement
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Vygotsky said that
learning leads development.
Things that can
be done with
little support
Things that can
be done with
much support
Things that can be
done without help
from others
Things that cannot
be done even with
support
A Social-Cognitive Theory of . . .
ZPD is the distance between
the actual developmental
level and the level of
potential development
as determined by
problem solving
under adult
guidance.
Initially, the adult assumes
most of the responsibility for
guiding the child’s problem
solving. But gradually this
responsibility transfers to the
child. A difference exists
between what the child can do
on his own and what the child
can do with adult help.
Vygotsky calls this the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD).
Piaget said that
development leads learning.
Learning and Development
ZONE OF PROXIMAL
DEVELOPMENT
LEV VYGOTSKY
Scaffolding -- where the adult
adjusts the level of help in
response to the child's level of
performance -- is an effective
teaching tool. It produces
immediate results and leads to
independent problem solving.
Cognitive development results
from a dialectical process
wherein children learn
through problem-solving
experiences they share
with adults or “more
knowledgeable
others.”
Since much of what children
learn comes from the culture,
and since much of their
problem solving is mediated
by parents or adults, or more
knowledgeable others, they
should not be taught alone or
in isolation. With the right
kind of adult help, children
can perform tasks they
cannot complete on their own.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005. Some of the information above paraphrases that retrieved from Funderstanding at http://www.funderstanding.com/about_us.cfm
Rotter’s Social Learning Theory Combines
Behaviorism and Personality Research
To understand behavior, one must take (a) the individual (life
history of learning and experiences) and (b) the environment
(stimuli the person is aware of and responding to) into account.
If you change the way the person thinks, or change the
environment he or she is responding to, you change behavior.
Behavior Potential
is the likelihood of
engaging in a
particular behavior
in a specific
situation.
=f
Expectancy is the
subjective probability
that a given behavior
will lead to a
particular outcome,
or reinforcer.
Reinforcement Value
refers to the
desirability of these
outcomes. Things we
want to happen, that
we are attracted to,
have a high
reinforcement value.
Behavior Potential (BP), Expectancy (E) and Reinforcement Value (RV) can be
combined into a predictive formula for behavior: BP = f(E & RV)
Although the psychological situation does not figure directly into Rotter's formula for predicting
behavior, he believes it is always important to keep in mind that people interpret the same
situation differently.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Re-created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Situated learning (Greeno, 1989; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989)
proposes that inquiries into learning and cognition must take
account of social interaction and physical activity. A unifying
concept emerging from related research is "communities of
practice” -- the idea that learning is constituted through the
sharing of purposeful, patterned activity (Lave & Wenger, 1991).
This idea stresses "practice" and "community" equally.
The nature of
knowledge is
socially
embedded
(Lave &
Wenger,
1991).
Communities
of Practice
Facilitate “authentic”
activity. Provide a
Culture
context that reflects the
Social Practice
way knowledge is used
and developed in realCommunities
of Practice
life. Provide Insight
Activity
through multiple
perspectives and
Authentic
changing roles for
community
members.
Learning
Knowledge
Concepts
Support collaborative
Values
construction of
Meanings
knowledge. Provide
Understandings & Beliefs
support and mentoring.
Communities
Promote reflection to
Socially created
Social Framework
of Practice
build abstractions.
networks across
Promote articulation to
cultures
Social Framework II
render competencies
Brown. J.S., Collins, A.. & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, p. 32-42.
explicit.
Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991) Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Knowledge is situated, thus,
in part, a product of the
activity, context, and culture
in which it is developed and
used (Brown et al., 1989).
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES
Activated information from
sensory store and activated
memory schemas is rehearsed,
studied, reviewed, used,
interpreted, transformed, etc.
Sensory
Input
Increasing
attention
to relevant
sensory
stimuli
Sensory
Memory,
Store, or
Register
All sensory input
is lost in .5 to 3
seconds if not
attended to
Attention
Long-term
Memory
Schema
Activation
Schema knowledge
clusters are being
created, expanded,
and interconnected.
Short-term
Encoding Long-term
and
Memory
Working
Long-term
or Store
Memory
Memory
or Store
Schema
Activation
Unrehearsed and
unused information lost
in 10 to 15 seconds
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Some information
lost over time
depending on
depth and extent
of schematic
encoding
Encoding
ShortTerm
Memory
7± 2 bits
Working
Memory
Activated LongTerm Memory
Schemas
Information Linked
with Long-Term
Memory Schemas
and/or Adequately
Rehearsed
Short-term memory and working memory
include what you are conscious-of, thinkingabout, or concentrating-on including
perceptions and cognitions. It refers to your
capacity to keep a limited amount of
information in an active state.
LongTerm
Memory
Retrieval
Sensory
Input
Attention
Perceived
Sensory
Information
Memory
Attended-To
Register
Information
Information gets from STM to LTM if it can be
meaningfully incorporated into activated schemas
or existing knowledge that has been temporarily
brought into the STM or “Working Memory” as well.
External
Events
Created by G. Vessels, 2004
Sensory MemoryRegister
General
Lasts a very brief 1 to 3 seconds
Holds information in an unprocessed state
Takes place without conscious awareness
Iconic Memory
Short-term sensory register for vision
Apparently holds everything we see
Lasts less than one second unfortunately
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Short-Term Memory
(new information)
Limited
7 ± 2 items and/or “chunks” of items ─
discovered by George Miller and W. Wundt
A chunk is a cluster, unit, or grouping of items
that can be processed as one item. Its
discovery is attributed to George Miller.
Lasts 10-20 seconds
The duration can be extended through attention
and rehearsal. Other uses and connections
move it into working memory.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Working Memory
(active, conscious memory)
Perhaps still limited to 7 ± 2 items and/or “chunks”
of items at any given moment.
These items and/or chunks can come from
long-term memory through retrieval or relatively
automatic activation of long-term memory
schemas, and/or from short-term memory as new
information.
Lasts indefinitely as one concentrates and acts
upon or transforms the information in some way
through simple rehearsal or one or more of
many forms of “higher-level” mental processing.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Working Memory
(continued)
A system for the temporary maintenance and manipulation
of information.
Underlies more complex cognitive tasks:
Learning (encoding)
Retrieval
Comprehension
Reasoning.
Temporary storage of information processed in a range of
different cognitive tasks.
Enables independent and diverse types of information to
interact.
Thus, a common system that operates across a broad range
of tasks and types of information.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Baddey and Hitch’s Model of Working Memory
Baddeley, A.D. & Hitch, G. (1974). Working Memory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation,
Volume 8. New York: Academic Press.
Articulatory loop
Phonological
Store
Central Executive
A Revised Working Memory Model – Baddeley 2001
Central
Executive
Visual
Semantics
Episodic
LTM
Language
Baddeley, A.D. (2001). Is working memory still working? American Psychologist, 56, p. 851-864.
The Central Executive
• Most complex and least understood component of
Working Memory
• “In some ways the Central Executive functions
more like an attentional system than a memory
store” - Baddeley (1997)
• Model suggests that the Central Executive (CE)
coordinates the activity of its two slave systems.
• Other possible functions for the CE include
coordinating retrieval strategies, guiding selective
attention, temporarily activating long term memory
schemas, suppression of habitual responses.
Long-Term Memory
Relatively permanent memory.
Structured cognitively as (1) a network of linked or
interconnected nodes that form complex memory
schemas and/or (2) levels of meaning and
understanding, from shallow to deep, that reflect
how the person encountered and has used the
information (e.g. active-experiential learning that
involved discovery and some form of application
requiring reasoning would presumably place the
information at a deep and more permanent ,
retrievable, and usable level in long-term memory).
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Vessels reworking of Kevin Richardson’s 1998 Slide
Organizing Info & Encoding
Meaningful Info is Easier to Encode
Chunking
Hierarchies
Magical Number 7±2
“ciacnnabccbsnbc”
ROYGBIV
Broad Concepts First
Details Next
Like Outlined Notes
Types of Long-Term
Memory
Explicit
knowing you know
Semantic
Facts/General
Knowledge
Episodic
Experienced
events
Implicit
not knowing you know
Procedural
Skills
Motor/Cognitive
Dispositions
Class/Operant
Conditioning
Separate Processing & Storage
Vessels re-working of Kevin Richardson’s 1998 slide, which is available through the American Psychological Society.
Remembering: Retrieval Cues
Recognition
Identification of
items
previously learned
Recall
Retrieval of information
previously learned
Retrieval Cues - help us to remember
Web of Associations or LTM Schemas
“hare”
Priming
Activation of a
connected node
(Implicit)
Vessels re-working of Kevin Richardson’s 1998 slide which is available through the American Psychological Society via J. Krantz.
LTM - semantic network
Breathes
Barks
Four Legs
ANIMAL
Is a
Is a
Moves
Wild
SHEEPDOG
DOG
Instance
Domesticated
Is
a
Is
a
Medium Size
COLLIE
Instance
Tracks
HOUND
HUNTING
BREEDS
Works Sheep
Brown, White,
Black
Working
Dogs
Instance
Instance
LASSIE
Is a
BEAGLE
Instance
Brown, White,
Black
Instance
SHADOW
Small Size
Brown & White
Book
Character
Brown & White
Dog on TV
DOGS ON TV
SNOOPY
Cartoon Book
Character
Friend of
CARTOON DOGS ON TV
Charlie Brown
REAL DOGS ON TV
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Memory/Concept
Schemas
include
provide
Generalized
knowledge
Operate in
Allow
predictions
of new
Scripts
are
Are about
Sequences
of events
Differ
from
Understood
better by
Occur
over
exploit
Situations
and events
Categories
Extended
period of time
Meaning of
message
Guided
by
Violate our
Memory
selection
Does not
store
has
Two
approaches
Generally
accurate rules
of thumb
includes
Pragmatic
approach
Is for
Exact
Words
uses
Studied
by
Schema
inconsistent
material
uses
Verbatim
memory
Misremember
is
emphasizes
Says
people
can
control
Is shifted
to
remember
Attention
Can
use
Relevant
schema
Earlier
material
Office
schema
involves
Harris et al.
Background
knowledge
Linked
with
Schema
activation
Use our own
culturally
consistent
material
Inevitable
Researched
by
Schema
consistent
material
e.g.
Developed by
Murphy
and
Shapiro
can
Make sense
within proper
framework
Causes
us to
requires
Constructive
approach
Correct
Predictions
Integration
Interpretation
Grammatical
Structure
Bottom-up
processing
Emphasizes
active nature
of
Errors
Is not
stores
Clusters
of
objects
Cognitive
processes
are
Are an
are
Can
lead to
Can be
Recognition
and
understanding
are
Top down
processing
Heuristics
Expectations
guide
Four
phases of
memory
Abstractions
Experts
include
are
More
memorable
Bartlett
Also
studied
Can
help in
Can
mislead
in
Mental
models
Recall
Incidental
learning
Has
consequences
on
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Forgetting
Proactive Interference
Something learned earlier disrupts something learned later
Forgetting
Past
Present
Retroactive Interference
Something learned later disrupts something learned earlier.
Forgetting
Present
Past
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Forgetting As Retrieval Failure
Some info may never
make it to LTM
Encoding Failure
Some info may not
make it out of LTM
Interference
Interference - learning some items may
Interfere with learning other items
Proactive vs Retroactive
Interference
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Behaviorism
Information
Processing
Constructivism
A change in the
probability of a particular
behavior occurring in a
particular situation.
A change in
knowledge as
stored in memory.
A change in meaning
constructed from
experience.
How is learning
viewed?
An antecedent, prompts a
behavior that is followed
by some consequence.
Involves several
processes: attention,
working memory,
encoding into long-term
memory schemas,
retrieval.
Interplay among students'
existing knowledge, the
social context, and the
problems to be solved.
What is the
teacher's role?
To arrange the
reinforcement
contingencies and present
them to
the students.
To guide and support
cognitive processes that
support various memory
functions.
To provide students with a
collaborative learning
situation, and to function
as a coach and facilitator.
How does
the teacher carry
out his
or her roll?
▪ State objectives of
the instruction as learner
behaviors;
• Use cues to guide
students to desired
behavior;
• Use consequences
to reinforce
desired behavior.
▪ Organize new
information;
• Link new information to
existing knowledge;
• Use techniques to guide
and support students'
attention, encoding, and
retrieval.
• Provide students with
"good problems" that
stimulate exploration and
discovery;
• Create group learning
activities;
• Model and guide
the knowledgeconstruction process.
How is
learning
described?
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Perspective
Behavioral
Information
Processing
Constructivist
Early 20th century
Mid 20th century
Later 20th century
B.F. Skinner – his ideas on
Operant Conditioning largely
contributed this perspective.
Background
Developed as a reaction to the
study of mental phenomena by
psychoanalytic psychologists,
gestalt psychologists, and
others.
George Miller – provided two
ideas that are fundamental to
this perspective: 1. short-term
memory can only hold 5-9
chunks of meaningful
information; 2. The human mind
functions like a computer –
takes in information, processes
it, stores and later locates it,
and generates responses to it.
Developed as a reaction to
behaviorism.
(Although ideas of constructivism have
existed prior to the 20th century — Dewey,
Piaget, Bruner, and Vygotsky)
Represents a collection of theories including
- generative learning, discovery learning,
and situated learning.
Ideas of constructivism come from cognitive
psychology, developmental psychology, and
anthropology.
Definition
Learning occurs when new
behaviors or changes are
acquired as the result of an
individual’s response to stimuli.
Learning is a change in
knowledge stored in long-term
memory schemas.
Learning is the process where individuals
construct new ideas or concepts based on
prior knowledge and/or experience.
Principles
The influence of the external
environment contributes to the
shaping of the individual's
behavior.
The environment presents an
antecedent that prompts a
behavior.
Whether the behavior occurs
again is dependent on the
consequence that follows it.
Governed by internal process
rather than by external
circumstance (behaviorism).
Process of selecting
information (Attention),
translating information
(Encoding), and recalling that
information when appropriate
(Retrieval).
Individuals construct knowledge by working
to solve realistic problems, usually in
collaboration with others.
Learning as a change in meaning
constructed from experience.
Individual interpretation of experience vs.
objective representation (information
processing perspective)
Applications for
Instruction
1. State objectives and break
them down into steps
2. Provide hints or cues that
guide students to desired
behavior.
3. Use consequences to
reinforce the desired behavior.
1. Organize new information.
2. Link new information to
existing knowledge.
3. Use techniques to guide and
support students' Attention,
Encoding, and Retrieval
process.
1. Pose "good" problems - realistically
complex and personally meaningful.
2. Create group learning activities.
3. Model and guide the knowledge
construction process.
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Modeled after chart created byLeilani Carbonell (2004). Instructional development timeline, learning theory. Retrieved from
http://www.my-ecoach.com/idtimeline/learningtheory.html Part of the My-eCoach program.
Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) and Krathwohl’s Revision (2001)
Knowledge
Dimension
Cognitive Process Dimension
Remember
Factual
Knowledge
Understand
Apply
Analyze
Create
EVALUATION
Conceptual
Knowledge
SYNTHESIS
Procedural
Knowledge
ANALYSIS
Meta-Cognitive
Knowledge
APPLICATION
Primary Source: Anderson, L.W., &
Krathwohl (Eds.). (2001). A Taxonomy
for Learning,Teaching, and Assessing:
A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives.
New York: Longman.
Evaluate
COMPREHENSION
KNOWLEDGE
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005 ©
Parallel Distributed Processing: also referred
to as Neural Networking or Connectionism
McClelland, J. L. and Rumelhart, D. E. (1988). Explorations in Parallel Distributed Processing: MIT Press
Components of this “computational” learning/memory theory: (a) processing units,
(b) connections -- each unit can be connected to any other unit via a link which has
a “weighting” or “strength” (c) the weighting can be either excitatory or inhibitory (d)
activation rules, (e) internal inputs (f) external inputs (g) unit processing output.
Hidden Layers
Input Links
to neuron
Connections
Neuron
Output links
from neuron
Neural (Memory)
Network
Input Layer
Output Layer
Information isn’t input into memory in a step-by-step manner:
consolidated first in sensory memory, then short-term, and
then long-term memory. Rather, information is distributed to
all parts of the networked memory system at once.
Input
links to
neural
(memory)
network
Output
links from
neural
(memory)
network
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Gordon Vessels ©
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
More
Concrete
More
Abstract
Reflective
Observation
Concrete
Experience
Active
Experimentation
More Active
Abstract
Generalization
Experiential
Learning
Theory:
Rogers,
Dewey,
Kolb
Youth do before
being shown how
More Reflective
The Experiential Learning
Cycle After John Dewey
and David Kolb
Youth use the
skills learned
in parts of their
lives
Youth Connect
the discussion to
the larger world
More
Concrete
Public
Reflection
Coordinated
Action
Shared
Meaning
More
Abstract
Joint
Action
More Active
1
Experience
The Group Team
Learning Cycle
the activity:
Perform it,
do it
5
Apply
2
Share
Do
what was learned to a
similar or different
situation, practice
Apply
More Reflective
results, reactions,
and observations
publicly
Youth describe
results of the
experience and
their reactions
Reflect
4
Generalize
3
Process
to connect the
experience to real
world examples
discussing, looking
at the experience,
analyzing,
reflecting
Arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005
Youth relate the
experience to the
learning
objectives (life
skills and/or
subject matter)