Evaluate participant, non-participant,
naturalistic, overt and covert observations.
“I’d rather see a sermon that to
hear one any day”
-Edgar Guest
(Live your creed poem)



What people say they believe and say that they
do are often contradicted by their behavior.
A large body of scientific literature documenting
this disparity exists, and we can all likely summon
examples from our own lives.
Given the frequency of this very human
inconsistency, observation can be a powerful
check against what people report about
themselves during interviews and focus groups.
When to Use
1. Too much error in accounts/recounts. Need to
study topic in natural setting.
2. Too much bias with researcher presence in
doing interviews:
3. RQ has to do with behavior or a setting. How
people act in public places or the informal rules of
interaction. Examples are classroom settings and
meetings.
When to Use
4. You need to experience the phenomenon in
order to understand it (examples traumatic stress
symptoms in at-risk students)
5. Data not available via interviews: people not
available.





Participant
Non-participant
Overt
Covert
Naturalistic


Participant observation refers to a form of
research methodology in which the researcher
takes on a role in the social situation under
observation.
The social researcher immerses his/herself in the
social setting under study, getting to know
members of a sub group in that location in a role
which is either covert or overt, although in
practice, the researcher will often move
between these two roles.



Participant observation is a qualitative method
with roots in traditional ethnographic research,
whose objective is to help researchers learn the
perspectives held by study populations.
Qualitative researchers presume that there will
be multiple perspectives within any given
community.
Researchers are interested in knowing what
those diverse perspectives are and in
understanding the interplay among them.



Participant observation always takes place in
community settings, in locations believed to
have some relevance to the research questions.
The method is distinctive because the researcher
approaches participants in their own
environment rather than having the participants
come to the researcher.
Generally speaking, the researcher engaged in
participant observation tries to learn what life is
like for an “insider” while remaining, inevitably,
an “outsider.”



While in these community settings, researchers
make careful, objective notes about what they
see, recording all accounts and observations as
field notes in a field notebook.
Informal conversation and interaction with
members of the study population are also
important components of the method and
should be recorded in the field notes, in as much
detail as possible.
Information and messages communicated
through mass media such as radio or television
may also be pertinent and thus desirable to
document.


Data obtained through participant observation
serve as a check against participants’ subjective
reporting of what they believe and do.
Participant observation is also useful for gaining
an understanding of the physical, social,
cultural, and economic contexts in which study
participants live; the relationships among and
between people, contexts, ideas, norms, and
events; and people’s behaviors and activities –
what they do, how frequently, and with whom.


Allows for insight into contexts, relationships,
behavior. How so? Explain.
Another strength is the richness of the
description. . How so?


The main disadvantage of participant
observation is that it is time-consuming. In
traditional cases, researchers spend at least one
year in the field site collecting data through
participant observation and other methods.
This is not practical for most applied research
studies, which necessarily require a shorter
period of data collection.


By entering the group, the observer by definition
changes it to some extent. What are examples
of this?
Some researchers hold that participant
observational research is always unethical. Why
is this?


Another disadvantage of participant
observation is the difficulty of documenting the
data – it is hard to write down everything that is
important while you are in the act of
participating and observing.
As the researcher, you must therefore rely on
your memory and on your own personal
discipline to write down and expand your
observations as soon and as completely as
possible.


It is easy to tell yourself that you will do this task
later, but, because memory fades quickly,
postponing the expansion of notes can lead to
loss or inaccurate recording of data.
The quality of the data therefore depends on the
diligence of the researcher, rather than on
technology such as tape recorders (although
some researcher used video recorders to assist in
their observations).


A research technique whereby the researcher
watches or records the subjects of his or her
study, with their knowledge, but without taking
an active role in the situation under scrutiny.
This approach is sometimes criticized on the
grounds that the very fact of their being
observed may lead people to behave
differently, thus invalidating the data obtained,
i.e. the Hawthorne effect.


An example would be someone sitting in Mr.
Freeman’s classroom observing lectures or
watching interactions between health care
professionals and patients in a clinic.(overt nonparticipation observation)
Observation through one way mirrors may also
fall into this category. The observer would not join
in on the activities of the group, they would
watch from a far. (covert non-participation
observation)


Researchers who study how people communicate
often want to examine the details of how people
talk and behave together. Non-participant
observation involving the use of recording devices
might be a good choice for this type of study.
This data collection approach results in a detailed
recording of the communication and provides the
researcher with access to the contours of talk (e.g.
intonation) as well as body behavior (e.g. facial
expression, eye gaze). Even a great observer
cannot record these aspects in detail.


The Non-Participating observer concentrates
fully on his or her role and as a researching
observer, taking little or no part in the
interactions/situations to be investigated.
More precise records can be made by NonParticipatory Observations, as the observer can
concentrate fully on his/her the interpretation of
what he or she sees. (strength)



Non-Participatory Observation is also accorded
a high degree of objectivity since the
observation is effectively external and
disinterested.
However, this very situation also contains the risk
that the observer will remain distant from the
natural environment of the people being
investigated, thus transferring his/her own
explanatory models over to the group or
situation under observation. (limitation)
.


Participant and nonparticipant observations
share several benefits and problems, both being
useful fact-finding methods when in depth data
is sought. This is especially true when the
investigator wants to describe a cycle of events.
Observers are able to focus on the dynamics of
a particular group without personally influencing
the group (from a participant perspectivealthough the presence of the researcher can still
influence the group to some extent).

The researcher establishes his/her role as
observer, thus ethical considerations are made.


Observers are only usually able to view the
behavior from an etic standpoint. Explain to the
reader.
Observers are able to focus on the dynamics of
a particular group without personally influencing
the group (from a participant perspectivealthough the presence of the researcher can still
influence the group to some extent).
There are two main types of observation; covert
and overt: In the case of Covert Observation, the people
being observed do not know that they are
observed.
 The observation is undertaken discreetly so that
the behavior of the person being observed is not
disrupted or altered. The person’s behavior is
intended to continue as naturally as possible.


Covert observation- Participant observation
carried out without the explicit awareness and
agreement of the social group being studied.
This entails finding some self-explanatory role
within the research setting in order to mask the
researcher's true purpose. It may be used
because research access to the social unit
group would normally be denied, or to ensure
that the researcher's presence does not affect
the behavior of those being observed.
Either they mix in with the subjects undetected
(participant), or they observe from a
distance(non-participant). The strengths of this
approach are:
(1) It does not rely on people’s willingness or ability
to provide information.

(2) The subjects’ behavior will not be
contaminated by the presence of the
researcher.
The limitations of this approach are:
(1) It is deemed unethical by many review boards
because of the lack of informed consent.

(2) Susceptible to researcher bias. Interpretation of
observed behavior is subjective to the
perspective of the researcher.
(3) Does not increase your understanding of why
people behave as they do.



An overt observation in when a participant knows
that they are being observed and the purpose
behind the observation.
This method of observation means that participants
can be followed to different locations as fully
informed consent can be given with no need for
deception. (strengths)
However as the participant knows that they are
being followed, it is likely that there will be a high
chance of demand characteristics as they will wish
to please the observer.(limitations)
According to Jerquer (2010) The strengths of this
approach are:
(1) It is ethically sound (unlike covert observation)
(2) Gains in depth emic knowledge from sub
groups. (unlike questionnaires)
(3) Can increase your understanding of why
people behave as they do.

The limitations of this approach are:
(1) Overt observations can be time consuming.
Researchers must spend numerous hours
observing and interpreting behavior.
(2) Can cause the Hawthorne effect (because
they know they're being observed)
(3) Can be difficult to maintain confidentiality with
some observed information.
(4) Some more sensitive subjects

ACTIVITY
OVERT
DISCLOSURE
COVERT
PARTICIPANT
NONPARTICIPANT
Waiting with other Standing aside
commuters,
from commuters,
taking notes
taking notes
obviously
obviously
Waiting with other Hiding from
commuters,
commuters,
taking notes
taking notes
secretly
secretly





Define purpose of research
Decide on what kind of notes to be made
Make necessary arrangements for
observation
Familiarize yourself with setting and people
Decide on observational method (e.g.
participant observation, more than one
observer, post observational interviews)



Possible researcher bias
Possible Hawthorne effect
Ecological validity





Informed consent (only possible for overt
observations)
Observation might stress participants
Use of deception (if covert participant
observation)
Debriefing (sometimes difficult)
Invasion of privacy issue


Qualitative: Use of inductive content analysis
Quantitative: Use of coding schemes,
frequencies and ratings
Discuss considerations involved in setting up
and carrying out an observation


Much in depth qualitative research is
observational in part. The reporting of such
research is often inadequate, which hampers the
assessment of its strengths and limitations and of
a study's generalizability.
Bailey (1987) developed recommendations on
what should be included in an accurate and
complete report of an observational study. This is
what we will use to answer this objective


There are various considerations available to an
observation researcher in undertaking research.
Many of these considerations pertain to the way
the researcher is to observe the phenomena of
interest and are contingent upon various factors,
including the purpose of the research, the setting
in which the research will take place, the
resources available and the nature of the study.
All observation research exercises tend to follow a
common pattern of activities. This process has a
number of distinct stages. The following is a ninestep approach in conducting an observational
study.
Step 1- Determine Observation Research
Objectives.
 What the researcher wants to observe and the
purpose of the observation is listed in the form of
research objectives.
 The researcher must formulate what is to be
achieved by conducting the observation
research. In broad terms, the main objective of
the study should be to understand and describe
the phenomena of interest as completely as
possible, although each observer may have
more specific sub-objectives.
Step 2-Selection of Research Subjects.
The people to be observed must be decided. The
research subjects selected must be done so as to
achieve the research objectives. Why is this
important?
Step 3- Decide Field Role.
 Prior to entering the field, the observation
researcher must decide which field role he/she is
going to adopt.
 The options available are: overt participant,
covert participant, observer-as-participant or
overt non-participant, covert non-participant.
 The field role selected will be contingent upon
the purpose of the research, time allocated for
the research, organizational access and ethical
approval.
Step 4-Gain Entry to the Research Field.
 Observation researchers recognize the
fundamental need to go where participants
spend time.
 Most research fields (unless it is a public place)
cannot be observed by anyone, at any time.
Entry must be gained to the research field.
 In organizations, there are individuals who, by
virtue of their office, have the authority to act as
gatekeepers.
 They can grant or withhold formal permission to
enter and participate in the life of the
organization.
Step 4-Gain Entry to the Research Field.
 Hence, researchers must negotiate permission for
entry through such gatekeepers.
 The researcher must determine a strategy
whereby, he/she will be granted entry to the
field to be studied.
 Dealing with such gatekeepers is therefore an
extremely important part of gaining entry to the
research field, but at the same time several
hurdles stand in the way
Step 5- Build Rapport with the Subjects being
Studied.
 Achieving rapport is an important prerequisite in
participant observation research.
 Building rapport entails the development of
reciprocal relationships and mutual trust
between observer and subjects.
Why is it important to build a rapport with
participants?
Step 5- Build Rapport with the Subjects being
Studied.
 It is only when research subjects treat the
observer as a friend and confidant, rather than a
researcher that they will reveal their innermost
feelings and make their most intimate and
unbiased statements.
 It can be the most difficult and time-consuming
task in observation research, but is impetrative if
valid data is to be obtained.
Step 6 - Observing and Recording.
The researcher begins observing the phenomena
of interest and recording findings. Methods of
recording (diary, post-observational notes,
recorders, etc.) must be determined in this step.
More specifically, field notes recorded should
have five components "a running description of
events, previously forgotten happenings that are
now recalled, analytical ideas and inferences,
personal impressions and feelings, and notes for
further information" (Source: pg 250.)
Step 7 - Exit from the Observational Study.
 Once sufficient information is gathered, the
researcher must exit from the field.
 In instances where the researchers role is overt,
the subjects must be thanked for their
participation and contribution.
 If on the other hand, the researchers role has
been concealed throughout the observation
process, the researcher must exit the field
without drawing attention to oneself.
Step 8 - Data Analysis.
 The chief task of data analysis in observation
research consists of summarizing the field notes
by means of taxonomies.
 Once the data has been summarized, it must be
interpreted in the context of which the
phenomena took place, to draw meaningful
conclusions about behavior.
 In analyzing the data, the researcher must
develop a framework of theory that will help
him/her understand and explain to others, what
is going on in the research setting under study.
Step 8 - Data Analysis.
 There are no initial checklists for data analysis,
simply observation of events, situations and
behaviors, which are then written up and
gradually, as more data accumulates, tentative
guiding hypothesis, categorization, conceptual
frameworks and some theoretical underpinning
conjoin to give body, focus and direction to the
data collected.
Step 9 - Presentation of Findings.
Once conclusions have been arrived at through
analysis, the researcher must compile a
report presenting the findings. This is done in a
similar manner as interviews.
The Skill Balancing Act
 Observation skills do not get sharpened up in real
life the way most other skills do.
 Researchers need to train themselves to see,
learn, and think when watching people. This
takes tremendous amounts of practice and
discipline.
 In order, to meet the challenges posed by
observation research a researcher embarking on
an observation research project must develop
the following skill profile. How could training as
an observer change a covert/overt observation?
A participant/non-participant observation?
Conflict Management.
 Observation researchers face the probability of
encountering conflicts with research subjects, if
their status as a researcher is revealed during a
covert observation research project.
 Such conflicts if not handled appropriately, can
be detrimental to the research project as it can
de-motivate subjects and prevent them from
extending their cooperation.
 When such conflicts arise, researchers must be
equipped with appropriate conflict
management skills to cope.
Conflict Management.
 Observation researchers face the probability of
encountering conflicts with research subjects, if
their status as a researcher is revealed during a
covert observation research project.
 Such conflicts if not handled appropriately, can
be detrimental to the research project as it can
de-motivate subjects and prevent them from
extending their cooperation.
 When such conflicts arise, researchers must be
equipped with appropriate conflict
management skills to cope.
Listening Skills.
 Since some observational research does not entail
questioning and speaking to respondents,
researchers can collect information only through
watching and listening.
 Listening to the conversations of research subjects in
their natural setting can yield useful information,
which sometimes cannot be gathered through
formal probing and questioning.
 Hence, active listening skills must be developed to
listen to research subjects and absorb what they are
saying. This entails developing the ability to stay
focused.
Critical Thinking.
 Researchers must develop the ability to be
objective and refrain from taking information at
face value.
 Developing critical thinking skills is imperative in
conducting observation research to eliminate
value judgments and assumptions about
behavior. What issues can rise from
misinterpreting what you observe?
 Skills must be developed to evaluate situations,
which occur in the observation field from
different perspectives, eliminating the probability
of misperception.
Discuss how researchers analyze data
obtained in observational research


The process of analysis and interpretation involve
disciplined examination, creative insight, and
careful attention to the purposes of the research
study. Analysis and interpretation are
conceptually separate processes.
The analysis process begins with assembling the
raw materials and getting an overview or total
picture of the entire process.


The researcher's role in analysis covers a
continuum with assembly of raw data on one
extreme and interpretative comments on the
other.
Analysis is the process of bringing order to the
data, organizing what is there into patterns,
categories, and basic descriptive units.


The analysis process involves consideration of words,
tone, context, non-verbals, internal consistency,
frequency, extensiveness, intensity, specificity of
responses and big ideas. Content analysis strategies
are essential in the analysis (Krueger, 1994).
Interpretation involves attaching meaning and
significance to the analysis, explaining descriptive
patterns, and looking for relationships and linkages
among descriptive dimensions. Once these
processes have been completed the researcher
must report his or her interpretations and conclusions


Reports based on observed data will include a
great deal of pure description of the program
and/or the experiences of people in the
research environment.
The purpose of this description is to let the reader
know what happened in the environment under
observation, what it was like from the
participants' point of view to be in the setting,
and what particular events or activities in the
setting were like.


The actual content and format of the
observation report will depend on the
information needs of primary stakeholders and
the purpose of the research.
Even a comprehensive report will have to omit a
great deal of the data collected by the
researcher. Why would it be necessary to omit
observed data from your report?


Focus is essential. Analysts who try to include
everything risk losing their readers in the sheer
volume of the presentation.
This process has been referred to as "the agony
of omitting". The agony of omitting on the part of
the researcher is matched only by the readers'
agony in having to read those things that were
not omitted, but should have been.



In considering what to omit, a decision has to be
made about how much description to include.
Detailed description and in-depth quotations are
the essential qualities of observational accounts.
Sufficient description and direct quotations
should be included to allow readers to
understand fully the research setting and the
thoughts of the people represented in the
narrative.
Description should stop short, however, of
becoming trivial and mundane. The reader does
not have to know absolutely everything that was
done or said. Again the problem of focus arises.



Description is balanced by analysis and
interpretation. Endless description becomes its
own muddle.
The purpose of analysis is to organize the
description in a way that makes it manageable.
Description is balanced by analysis and leads
into interpretation. An interesting and readable
final account provides sufficient description to
allow the reader to understand the analysis and
sufficient analysis to allow the reader to
understand the interpretations and explanations
presented.


Analysis is usually based on researcher’s field
notes, but these are often compared to data
from other sources (interview transcripts,
narratives, pictures). Why is this important?
One way to analyze the data from observations
is grounded theory analysis.


It is a methodology that has been used to
generate theory in areas where there is little
already known (Goulding, 1998). Its usefulness is
also recognized where there is an apparent lack
of integrated theory in the literature (Goulding,
2002).
Grounded theory “adapts well to capturing the
complexities of the context in which the action
unfolds…” (Locke, 2001:95) and emphasizes
process.


In so doing it assist the researcher in retaining the
link between culture, language, social context
and construct (Gales, 2003).
Therefore, grounded theory generates theory
that is of direct interest and relevance for
practitioners in that it analyses a substantive
topic and aims at discovering a basic social
process (BSP) which has the potential to resolve
some of the main concerns of a particular group
(Jones, 2002).
The core of grounded theory analysis is based on
three related processes:
 Description
 Coding and connecting themes
 Produce an account
Description
 Description includes; the context of the action,
the intentions of the participant, and the process
in which the action is embedded.
 A detailed description provides rich data.
Be able to provide examples supporting the
importance of description.
Coding and Connecting Themes
 This is the process of organizing notes into
categories.
 The purpose is to provide tools for analysis
Without categorization, it isn't possible to know
what is analyzed and no way to compare the
data.
 The coding is usually done through inductive
content analysis.
Coding and Connection Themes
 This is the process of organizing notes into
categories.
 The purpose is to provide tools for analysis
Without categorization, it isn't possible to know
what is analyzed and no way to compare the
data.
 The coding is usually done through inductive
content analysis.
The Classification Process
 Consists of reading, and rereading the field notes
in an interactive way.
 The researches must be able to identify bits of
data and create categories , by asking
questions like; who? What? When? Where? Why?



This approach can open different routes to
examine the data and make it easier to see how
the categories and subcategories may be
related by themes.
The researcher should write a summary of the
analysis so that independent readers can follow
how and why the connections are reached
The notes about notes are called memos.



When the data have been classified into
themes, the researcher can look for higher-order
themes (main themes) and subthemes.
Interpretation of the data is based on
comparison of the collected data, and
sometimes the researcher will include evidence
from other sources (interview data, or
information on the social context). How can
interpretation of observation be done using
other sources/methods?
It's important to think critically and not only look
for data that support the interpretation. Explain
how this can create bias?
Producing an Account
The end product is a written account based on all
the elements of the analysis.
The researcher produces a coherent explanation
and an overall theoretical framework for
understanding the phenomenon under
investigation.
The theoretical framework is “grounded” based
on the categories identified during the
observation.




However, it may also be that researchers use
theoretical triangulation - including alternative
theories to explain the phenomenon.
The researcher continuously consults the data to
see if they support the interpretation. He or she
may also consult the participants, to ask them
whether they can support the interpretation.
May also ask other researchers to take a critical
look at the account and the data to see
whether they can support them.
The important thing is that the researcher makes
it possible for the reader to track and verify how
the conclusion is reached.
Evaluate the use of case studies in research.



Case study research excels at bringing us to an
understanding of a complex issue or object and
can extend experience or add strength to what
is already known through previous research.
Case studies emphasize detailed contextual
analysis of a limited number of events or
conditions and their relationships.
Researchers have used the case study research
method for many years across a variety of
disciplines.


Social scientists, in particular, have made wide
use of this qualitative research method to
examine contemporary real-life situations and
provide the basis for the application of ideas and
extension of methods.
Researcher Robert K. Yin defines the case study
research method as an empirical inquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within
its real-life context; when the boundaries
between phenomenon and context are not
clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of
evidence are used (Yin, 2009, p. 23).
Types of case study:
Intrinsic – those cases of interest purely for their
own sake, where there is no need to generalize
beyond the case research or to attempt to build
theory based on the conclusion (Stake, 1994)
Instrumental (extrinsic) – carried out in order to
describe, explain or build theory around a
phenomenon that occurs with some frequency –
findings are expected to have relevance to other
cases.




Critics of the case study method believe that the
study of a small number of cases can offer no
grounds for establishing reliability or generality of
findings.
Others feel that the intense exposure to study of the
case biases the findings.
Some dismiss case study research as useful only as
an exploratory tool.
Yet researchers continue to use the case study
research method with success in carefully planned
and crafted studies of real-life situations, issues, and
problems. Reports on case studies from many
disciplines are widely available in the literature.



Anchored in real-life situations, the case study
results in a rich and holistic account of a
phenomenon.
It offers insights and illuminates meanings that
expand its readers' experiences. These insights
can be construed as tentative hypotheses that
help structure future research; hence, case study
plays an important role in advancing a field's
knowledge base.
Because of its strengths, case study is a
particularly appealing design for applied fields of
study such as education, social work,
administration, health, and so on.



Anchored in real-life situations, the case study
results in a rich and holistic account of a
phenomenon.
It offers insights and illuminates meanings that
expand its readers' experiences. These insights
can be construed as tentative hypotheses that
help structure future research; hence, case study
plays an important role in advancing a field's
knowledge base.
Because of its strengths, case study is a
particularly appealing design for applied fields of
study such as education, social work,
administration, health, and so on.


Perhaps because a case study focuses on a
single unit, a single instance, the issue of
generalizability looms larger here than with other
types of qualitative research.
However, much can be learned from a
particular case. Readers can learn vicariously
from an encounter with the case through the
researcher's narrative description. (Stake, 2005).


The colorful description in a case study can
create an image: "a vivid portrait of excellent
teaching, for example--can become a
prototype that can be used in the education of
teachers or for the appraisal of teaching" (Eisner,
1991, p. 199).
Further, Erickson (1986) argues that since the
general lies in the particular, what we learn in a
particular case can be transferred to similar
situations.



The special features of case study research that
provide the rationale for its selection also present
certain limitations in it usage.
Although rich, thick description and analysis of a
phenomenon may be desired, a researcher may
not have the time or money to devote to such an
undertaking.
And assuming time is available to produce a
worthy case study, the product may be too
lengthy, too detailed, or too involved for busy
policy makers and practitioners to read and use.


Qualitative case studies are limited, too, by the
sensitivity and integrity of the investigator. The
researcher is the primary instrument of data
collection and analysis.
This has its advantages. But training in
observation and interviewing, though necessary,
is not readily available to aspiring case study
researchers. Nor are there guidelines in
constructing the final report. The investigator is
left to rely on his or her own instincts and abilities
throughout most of this research effort.
Explain how a case study could be used to
investigate a problem in an organization or group



One of the best ways to understand groups, in
general, is to understand one group, in depth.
The case-study approach has a long and
respected tradition in all the sciences, with some
of the greatest advances in thinking coming
from case studies rather than from experiments
or survey studies.
The field of group dynamics, in particular, is
checkered with case studies that have
transformed the field: the case analyses
conducted at the Hawthorne Plant of the
Western Electric Company


By examining a group during its actual activities,
you gain understanding of such groups in
general. Provide examples to support this
statement.
Detailed case studies on groups, in some cases,
are higher in external validity, and they can also
be the vessel for more advanced theoretical
analysis.



Indeed, extending David B. Miller's comments about
naturalistic observation to case studies of groups
(1977, American Psychologist, Vol. 32, pp. 211-220),
we find that case studies are useful because:
they allow us to study groups, for their own sake
they serve as a "starting point for investigating
certain behavioral phenomena and subsequently
serve as a point of departure from which to develop
a program of laboratory research" (Miller, p. 213);


they can serve to validate findings obtained in
quantitative data (such as questionnaires and
closed-ended interviews);
they provide us with a larger context for
understanding groups as they form, develop,
and disband in their natural settings;




Case studies can deal with either single or multiple
cases. There are two types of single case study that
are helpful for investigating problems within a group:
the intrinsic and the instrumental
The intrinsic case study is done to learn about a
unique phenomenon which the study focuses on.
Specifically, intrinsic case studies can look at unique
problems within a group. Examples should be used
The researcher needs to be able to define the
uniqueness of this phenomenon which distinguishes it
from all others; possibly based on a collection of
features or the sequence of events.




Usually intrinsic cases are too specific to
generalize.
As with the case of feral children with studying
language or attachment theories.
Because of the rarity in which feral children
cases occur, one cannot make a good
generalization about general human behavior.
One can however, make a specific
generalization to feral children from a carefully
designed case.



The instrumental case study is done to provide a
general understanding of a
phenomenon/problem using a particular case.
The case chosen can be a typical case
although an unusual case may help illustrate
matters overlooked in a typical case because
they are subtler there.
Thus a good instrumental case does not depend
on the researcher being able to defend its
typicality though the researcher needs to
provide a rationale for using a particular case..


Well developed instrumental case studies use
multiple cases, so there is more data
triangulation.
Data triangulation is when a piece of data, a
finding, or a generalization is able to be verified
with several different research methods. This
helps add to your credibility and makes your
findings stronger.


For example, you are studying binge drinking on
campus. You find national averages that
indicate that 45% of college students binge drink
nationwide. You conduct your own research at
the Florida State campus.
You find that 47% of the individuals you surveyed
drink; you also interview a counselor on campus
who reports that approximately 1/3 of the
students who he sees suffer from a drinking
problem. Thus, your results from an interview with
an expert and your own survey support the
national averages.



Instrumental case studies, because of its
triangulated approach, can be generalized to
some extent.
This is because, like research experiments,
generalizations should not be made from a single
case. Even if the case is well designed.
Yin (2009) believed that theoretical
generalizations-not population generalizationscan be made from multiple case studies; but
very rarely from a single case.
Explain how a case study could be used to
investigate a problem in an organization or group