Participant Observation
Criteria for Trustworthiness
Credibility assesses the degree to which the
report “rings true” to the participants studied.
 Dependability assesses the degree to which the
research process is trackable.
 Confirmability assesses the connection between
the conclusions drawn and the sources of data
which support those conclusions.
 Transferability describes the level of description
necessary to allow readers to determine whether
the qualitative report can be applied to other
topics or settings of interest.

Dell Hymes’ SPEAKING (1972)
Heuristic Framework
Situation
Key
Genres
Ends
Instrumentality
Participants
Norms of
Interaction
Act
Characteristics
The Choreography of Participant
Observation (Janesick, 1994)
Like dance, researchers must be flexible
and adaptive to the dynamic process
 There are three stages to participant
observation:

– The “warm-up” period
– The “floor exercise” stage
– The “cool-down” stage
The “Warm-up” Period
The researcher begins the process with general
questions of interest – these questions will evolve
throughout the research process.
 The literature review is written to achieve theoretical
sensitivity.
 The researcher initiates a reflexive journal and a journal
for field notes.
 The researcher selects the field site.
 The researcher decides the type of role they will assume.
 The researcher seeks to gain and sustain access to the
site.

Roles of the Researcher

Observation Strategies
– Complete-participant role
– Participant-as-observer role
– Observer-as-participant
– Complete observer

Degree of Involvement
– Complete Member
– Active Member
– Peripheral Member
Gaining and Sustaining Access
The researcher needs to carefully assess the nature of
informed consent given her goals, her desired role, and
the community of interest.
 A gatekeeper (formal or informal) will be key to gaining
access to your site – a formal gatekeeper can often offer
consent for you to study her organization.
 Sponsors help you to establish relationships with other
community members by taking an interest in your
project.
 Informants are those members of the community that
you go to for information about the community and for
conducting “member checks.”
 Prolonged engagement in the field helps to ensure the
greater credibility of the study.

The “Floor Exercise” Period
Sampling
 Constructing Field Notes and Visual
Records
 Making ethical decisions
 Triangulating sources of data
 Sustaining elasticity

Sampling Participants, Activities,
and Scenes
Maximum-variation sampling
 Typical case sampling
 Snowball sampling
 Theoretical construct sampling
 Critical case sampling
 Convenience sampling

Constructing Field Notes


Do not trust your memory – take notes during or soon
after your observations take place.
Take notes in stages
– First, take initial notes to help you recall observations.
– Second, take detailed and comprehensive notes filling in the
initial notes.



Field notes should include detailed descriptions, initial
analysis as well as reflexive notes on the research
process
Field notes should be chronological
The content of field notes will vary according to the
purpose of the study, but should include the “who, what,
when, where, and why” of the observations.
Triangulating Sources of Data
(Denzin, 1978)
Use multiple
 Use multiple
research
 Use multiple
 Use multiple

and different sources of data
and different methods of
researchers
theoretical perspectives
The Iterative Process of Participant
Observation: Remain Elastic
The “Cool-Down” Period





Data gathering is complete when saturation has been
achieved.
When data are repetitive and interpretations refined,
saturation has been achieved.
In order to determine saturation, the researcher must
analyze data as it is collected.
The researcher must keep her relationships with
participants in mind when deciding how to leave the
field.
Additional member checks may be necessary as the
researcher continues to write the research report.