CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
COMPUTER
2.1.1
Stress Related to Computer
There are several common causes of stress related to computer. Firstly is failing to cope
with problems of computer, also trying to get by on the cheap for computers components,
and also failing to ask for help about computer usage (Morton 2007). All of these causes
can lead to one type of stress that is called ''technostressors '' which mean inability to cope
with the new computer in a healthy way (Brod 1994). There are always relationships
between personality type and computer assignments towards the stress levels and the
severity of stress especially in the business student population (Towell et al. 2000).
In the field of industrial psychology it has been a concerned not only with effects
of time pressure, heat, and noise towards the worker’s emotional and cognitive state, as
well as performance, but also with effects in the human computer interaction (Kuhmann,
Schaefer & Boucsein 1990; Thum, Boucsein, & Kuhmann 1995; Trimmel & Huber 1998;
Trimmel, Strässler & Knerer 2001).
One of the factors of human-computer interaction contributing to stress is the
system response time (SRT) which is the time between data input and system response.
Short SRT or effective coping mechanism can avoid stress. (Shneiderman 1997) .Also
computer system performance that defined as the frequency of computer problems and
computer use intensity had direct and indirect effects on worker stress (Pascale CarayonSainfort 1992). As the frequency of computer problems and computer use intensity
increased, workload and work pressure increased also worker stress increase.
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2.1.2
Computer experience with computer anxiety
Computer experience is believed to have a negative correlation with computer anxiety
(Anderson 1996; Ayersman 1996; Cooper et al. 1996; Hadfield et al. 1997; Harris et al.
1996; Maurer 1994; McInerney et al. 1994). As the level of computer experience
increases the level of computer anxiety falls. This relationship has been shown to hold
true for industrial education teachers (Yang et al. 1999), student teachers (McInerney et al.
1994), British managers (Bozionelos 1996), Australian schoolteachers (Bradley et al.
1997), and professional school graduate students (Chu et al. 1991). The conclusion in
most of these studies is that the increase in the level of anxiety reported as experience
increases was not due to using the computer frequently, but was reflecting other
characteristics associated with computer use such as access to the computer and the
availability of games to play on the computer (King et al. 2002).
These results led to further refinement of the instruments used to measure
computer anxiety and to the qualification of the relationship between experience and
anxiety, as such that increased computer experience alone will not reduce computer
anxiety (McInerney et al. 1994). Computer experience may be measured using various
proxies including the number of computer courses taken, the number of years using a
computer, the number of software packages learned, or by using a self-efficacy
instrument to determine the individual’s perception of their computer skills (Compeau et
al. 1995a; Compeau et al. 1995b).
2.1.3
Gender differences with computer anxiety
Similar to computer related experience, gender has also been studied in relation to
computer anxiety by a wide number of researchers (King et al. 2002) with mixed results.
Some have found that males have more positive attitudes toward computers and lower
levels of anxiety (Colley et al. 1994; Okebukola 1993). Other studies found that females
had more positive attitudes and lower levels of anxiety than males (Siann et al. 1990).
Another set of studies found no significant differences between men and women with
regard to computer anxiety (Colley et al. 1994; Kay 1992; King et al. 2002).
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When we talked gender-wise, it seemed like females visited public computer less
frequently than males, and they were also less likely to own a computer and to have
Internet access at home. Males spent more hours using the computer per week than
females. Also female students tend to use computers more on the study-related purposes
whereas males enjoyed using the computers for a variety of other purposes instead of
studying only (Middendorf, 2002).
Recent literature on technology presents a complicated relationship between
gender and web use. While most scholars agree that the gender gap in Internet use has
narrowed significantly in the college age group (Goodson et al. 2001; Odell at al. 2000)
as well as the general population (Brenner, 1997; Jackson at al. 2001; Newburger, 1999;
Ono & Zovodny, 2003), some gender differences have been found in attitudes of the
technology, intensity of Internet use, online applications preferred, and experience in
cyberspace.
Investigations of college student Web use have proven especially insightful, as
research on this group allows for an examination of gender differences within an
institution in which men and women generally have equal access to the Internet (Odell et
al. 2000). The scholarship on gender and Web use is contradictory at times,
demonstrating the dynamic nature of the interaction, as well as the need for continued
investigation.
In a study of college students' attitudes toward technology, Smith and Necessary
(1996) found that males had significantly more positive attitudes toward computers than
females did. Jackson et al. (2001) also found that females in general reported less
favorable computer attitudes. Other literature, however, contradicts these findings.
Several investigations have reported that gender had no significant effect on any of the
dimensions of computer attitude studied (Jennings & Onwuegbuzie, 2001; Shaw & Gant,
2002), and one study found female college students to possess more positive attitudes
than their male peers (Zhang, 2002). The inconsistency in these findings might be
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attributed to differences in methodology, or might reveal how the increasing number of
female Internet users is altering women's attitudes regarding computers and the web. It is
noteworthy that the studies are separated by nearly half a decade.
2.1.4
Other computer anxiety factors
Other causes of computer anxiety have been investigated including learning style
(Bozionelos 1997a; Yang et al. 1999), personality type (Towell et al. 2001), age,
education level (Maurer 1994; Yang et al. 1999), and cultural or ethnic background
(Rosen et al. 1995; Yang et al. 1999). This may suggest that individuals with different
learning styles or personality types may require different types of training or humancomputer interaction to reduce computer anxiety and thereby increase their performance.
The research into cultural and ethnic backgrounds found definite, measurable differences
based on the culture of the society in which the technology takes place (Rosen et al. 1995).
Research has shown that even among individuals who share similar cultural, factors such
as gender and background experience may play a role (McIlroy et al. 2001).
A study of computer users was performed to determine the occurrence of and risk
factors for neck or shoulder and hand or arm musculoskeletal symptoms and disorders
were common among computer users especially during the first year after starting a new
job (Gerr et al. 2002).
As for students, having laptops were associated with spending more time working
on assignments, but it also depended on the course the student took. Students with laptops
often worked more frequent and spent more time on the assignments and had longer work
sessions than when they didn’t have laptops (Fay, 2006).
2.2
INTERNET
2.2.1
Benefit of internet towards student
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Student has been using the web widely for scholarship and research study. Nowadays,
students always use the internet when searching for the information they needed for their
class projects. Although some student did depend on internet resources in writing
research papers, a majority of the students used a combination of library and online
resources. (Burton & Chadwick 2000).
The major factors influencing the use of internet for academic was because it is
easy to use, convenience and accessible (Pascoe et al. 1996). The quality of the
information from the web for research can be judged (D’Esposito & Gardner, 1999)
When finding research on the internet for assignments student more likely to used search
engines instead of library pages even though students doubt about the accuracy of internet
sources (Lubans 1998). However, according to one study students who were given the
opportunity to work on laptops during lecture performed less well on tests of memory
than students who were prevented from using their laptops. (Hembrooke & Gay 2003).
The use of the web for research also emphasizes the increasing attraction for
digital information. An example of this increasing acceptance and embracing of the
digital can be found in the case of adoption of e-books. According to Blumenstyk (2001),
in institutions where e-books were being used, students complained about having to scroll
to find sections, about how long it took to scroll and about the problems of reading from a
laptop.
Students have also reported that the smaller screen of an e-book reader, designed
for just this application, makes the books more difficult to read, as the "tiny screens made
the texts seem more fragmented" (Young 2001). Students did find the search feature of an
e-textbook to be more convenient than the index of a paper textbook, but these same
students still used the traditional textbook more than the e-book (Blumenstyk 2001). The
Chronicle of Higher Education (2002) reported that college students are not yet willing to
replace textbooks with e-books. In fact, many of those interviewed expressed the view
that e-books adversely affected the amount of information that they absorbed.
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Students had been addressing web use extensively in recent scholarship and
research. One area of inquiry involves the role of the web in conducting research for class
projects. In a similar manner, Burton and Chadwick (2000) examined the internet
research habits of students and found that although some depend solely on internet
resources in writing research papers, a majority of the students in the study used a
combination of library and online resources. However, this did not mean that students
necessarily choose the best or most pertinent sources relating to their topics. Instead, as
emphasized by Burton and Chadwick, students depended upon what gives the most
positive ratings to sources that were easy to understand, easy to find and available
(Burton & Chadwick, 2000). Pascoe, Applebee, and Clayton (1996) also found that ease,
convenience, and accessibility were major factors influencing academic internet use.
Another emphasis has been on students' ability to evaluate the quality of the
sources they encounter when conducting research by using the web. O'Hanlon (2002)
tested college freshmen's internet proficiency and found that only 19% of students
received a passing grade (70% or higher) on questions relating to evaluation of web
sources, source selection and research strategy, and citing sources.
In addition, studies have shown that students use such criteria as the appearance of
Top-Level Domains to establish the trustworthiness of a web resource (Thompson, 2003).
This lack of critical thinking skill in regard to web source evaluation is often attributed to
academic handbooks focusing predominantly on the mechanics of the search process and
the format for electronic sources, rather than offering evaluative criteria for students to
utilize. Even with such handbooks, students scored especially low when answering
questions regarding the citation of electronic sources (O’Hanlon 2002). This situation
suggests that students need more training on how to conduct Internet research in general,
with emphasis on critical evaluation of all electronic sources and proper citation of
sources they do use.
2.2.2
Computer impact on users self efficacy, anxiety and attitudes
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The teaching and learning process has been changed due to the development of
technologies in current times (Bonk & King 1998; Marina 2001). It is stated that the
computer technologies have become a major components in the campus environment and
the college experience (Green 1998). It also indicated that computer network use has
become a way of life for the majority of the students especially to perform their task
(Green 1998; Romiszowski & Mason 1996).
By involving computers into the higher education, they can promote positive
attitudes toward computers and high computer self-efficacy and lower computer anxiety
levels and it would be major factors in helping people learn computer skills and use
computers (Busch 1995). However, even with experience in computer usage, people still
will suffer from stress that can have negative effect on their job performance. (John S.
Craig 1994).The effectiveness for the use of computers in higher education can avoid the
college student from suffering ‘technophobia’ (DeLoughry 1993).
Computer has a strong relationship with anxiety and stress that affects everyone
who uses it and it is caused by poor management, faulty system design, inadequate
training, and misunderstandings by users of what computers can do. Computer can act as
stimulus which may affect the individual which in the form of stress (Hudiburg
1999).Even from all of the studies; it is still proven that most of the adult suffered from
reaction towards the computer or technophobia (Weil, Rosen and Sears, 1997).
Internet use is positively correlated with depression, stress and also effecting
psychological health of the users. (Kraut et al. 1998).The present study found that internet
give impact to it users in a sense that it can decrease loneliness and depression
significantly, while social support and self-esteem increased significantly. (Shaw & Gant,
2002 ).
2.3
STRESS
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College students mostly first year are a group particularly prone to stress (D'Zurilla &
Sheedy 1991) due to the transitional nature of college life because they must adjust to
being away from home for the first time while maintaining a high level of academic
achievement, and adjust to a new social environment (Towbes & Cohen 1996). Usually
first year student score higher in the stress test than other students. (Rocha-Singh 1994).
College students usually deal with pressures related to finding a job or a life
partner that result from interaction between the stressors and how individual react towards
the stressors (Romano 1992). The amount of stress felt by the individual may be
influenced by the individual's ability to effectively cope with stressful events and
situations (D'Zurilla & Sheedy 1991). If stress is not dealt with effectively, feelings of
loneliness and nervousness, as well as sleeplessness and excessive worrying may result
(Wright 1997). It is important to design a specific stress intervention programs to
overcome stress inside the college students (Wright, 1997). The problems and situations
faced by college students may be different from their peers who aren’t students (Hirsch &
Ellis, 1996).
The pressure to earn good grades and a degree is very high (Hirsch & Ellis 1996).
However, that is not the only source of stress for students. Other potential sources of
stress include excessive homework, unclear assignments, and uncomfortable classrooms
(Kohn & Frazer 1986). Also academic requirements, relations with faculty members and
time pressures may also be sources of stress (Sgan-Cohen & Lowental 1998).
Relationships with family and friends, eating and sleeping habits, and loneliness may
affect some students directly (Wright, 1997). Beside that based on a research among the
overseas student that study at Australia, they have higher degree in stress indicator than
did the local student, all because they have different in cultural, social, style of learning
and study. (Burns 1991).