Islamic Pilgrimage,
Globalising Modernity & Diaspora:
British-Pakistani Experiences of
Hajj, ‘Umra & Ziyarat
Dr Seán McLoughlin
Theology & Religious Studies
University of Leeds
‘Pilgrimage in Pluralist Europe Today’
University of Antwerp
19-20 May 2011
Overview
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Transforming Pilgrimage:
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The Sacred and the Profane:
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Normative & Improvised Authenticities of ‘Being There’
Multiple Locations, Competing Imaginaries:
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Tradition & Migration, Identity & Consumer Culture
Class & Race, Puritanism & Devotionalism
Remembering the Sacred:
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Souvenirs & Memories, Perfected & Pragmatic Religiosities
1) Introduction
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About 25k British-Muslims go to Makkah for Hajj each
year
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This study:
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Research Assistant an experienced pilgrimage tour leader
18 in-depth semi-structured interviews
Respondents:
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‘British-Pakistanis’ in Lancashire, north of England
From ‘Azad’ Kashmir – dominant ethnic group of UK Muslims
Newly urbanised, first generation often farming background
Highly devotional Sunni Sufi heritage
1) Introduction
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Travel & the Islamicate imagination
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Global modernity enables world religions
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Negotiating similarity & difference with Muslim others
Both cosmopolitan interactions & consciousness of locality
(Eickelman & Piscatori 1990)
Ideological coherence of ‘High’ Islam; revival & reform more
central in Islamic discourse (Gellner 1992, Asad 1986)
But glocal complexities of competing traditions
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Islam is polycentric; Holy Places not immune from wider trends
Muslims & new public spheres: electronic capitalism, everyday
consumerism, hybridity, self-identity (Turner 1994).
2) Transforming Pilgrimage
2) Transforming Pilgrimage
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Pilgrimage to Makkah-Madinah Before Migration:
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Expectation for the very few, yet remoteness intensified sacrality
of a ‘home’ pivotal to the Sufi religious imagination
Longing yet feeling unworthy; closeness of interior journeys
Pilgrimage to Makkah-Madinah After Migration:
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Who should go, when and for what purpose?
‘Fate’, ‘duty’ & competing ‘responsibilities’ still key tropes.
But more immediate, affordable, democratised, chosen.
Shifting religiosities. Much pragmatism about expected piety but
also revivalism & young people’s journeys of self-identity.
De/remythologising with Islamic consumer cultures. DIY & limits.
3) The Sacred and the Profane
3) The Sacred and the Profane
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Ihram, separation & intensified God-consciousness
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Rituals remember trials of Adam, Ibrahim, Muhammad
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‘Being there’, ka’ba, & returning to monotheistic beginnings
Oceanic feelings & personal mediations/ improvisations
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Foreshadows end of time; journey from sin to purity
Popular culture simulates authenticity vs modernisation
Sacrifice, patience & suffering
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Danger, failure, getting it wrong, giving up
4) Multiple Locations, Competing
Imaginaries
4) Multiple Locations, Competing
Imaginaries
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Reflexive cosmopolitanism & difference cheek by jowl
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Cross-cultural encounters & emotional bonding
Commitment of poor Pakistani pilgrims vs British privilege
Discourse about danger of certain pilgrim groups stampeding /
stealing
Concern about the ‘separatism’ / ‘racism’ of others.
Theological utopias/dystopias juxtaposed
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Value of ziyarah for Kashmiri Sufis – Prophet living intercessor
Sectarian outbursts understood to transgress adab
But also attempts to discipline ‘incorrect’ practice
Affirming freedoms of the UK & subversive devotional acts
5) Remembering the Sacred
5) Remembering the Sacred
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Souvenirs:
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Transferring blessings & gift-giving: zamzam, dates & mass
produced scarves, beads, mats & secular items from Dubai!
Trigger memories / senses & reconnecting to ‘paradise’
Fractured Efficacy:
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Permanent renewal? Source of strength; struggles to reintegrate
Multiplied number of hajjis but few cut off from dunya; fading
efficacy, mixed motives, spirituality in fits & starts; rarely
displaces attachments to a UK home! Can ‘top up’ / return.
Yet one important reference point in a diasporic triad comprising
a network of different ‘homes’ / ‘homing desires’.